\ r^ 







Copyiiglit}}?^ 



\S>^2^ 



COFntlGHT DEPOSIT. 



Principles 

AND Practice 

OF Plumbing 



By J. J. COSGROVE 



AUTHOR OP 



Sewage Purification and Disposal 

Sanitary Refrigeration and Ice Making 

Rock Excavating and Blasting 



^ 



I'ublisheil by 
TECILNICAL BOOK PI BUSHING CO. 

SCFiANTON, Pa. 



<H^'^^ 






Copyright, l&t)6 
Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co. 



Copyrigrht. lf«22 
.John Joseph Cosarrove 



Third Edition. Revised. Enlarged 
and Rewritten. Tenth Thousand. 



DEC -1-22 

©CU692131 
a\0 \ 



PREFACE 

In prrparinp, the nianu.-icript lor this book, the autlior's sole object was 
to systematize and reduce to an exact basis, the principles which underlie the 
practice of plumbing. The necessity for accurate rules and formulas, instead 
of the empirical methods formerly employed, was often and forcibly brought 
homo to the author when tlesigning i)lumbing installations for large buildings. 
The scarcity of scientific information on this important branch of sanitation 
was quite marked. No book had ever been published that indicated the best 
kind of material to use for a given purpose, that told how work should be 
designed and installed to be perfectly sanitary, and that showed how to pro- 
portion the various parts with relation to the whole, so that a plumbing system 
designed and installed according to the text would give perfect service. 

Rules and formulas for proportioning hot and cold water supply pipes 
were entirely lacking and no literature was available that would be of assist- 
ance in determining this most important feature of a building. Neither could 
anything be had that would indicate the size of piping required to supply a 
giveu numl>©r of flushing valves for closets, nor that mentioned the numerous 
other conditions requiring consi"d'^ration when designing a plumbing installation. 

Realizing this, the author gathered much valuable data and worked out 
many rules and formulas from his private practice, and the gist of the rules, 
formulas and data have been incorporated in "Principles and Practice of 
Plumbing" where, for the first time, they were offered to the public. 

In planning the scope of the book, it was assumed that the reader knew 
but little of the subject of plumbing, and had no source of information outside 
of the book. With this premise in mind an effort was made to prepare the 
subject matter so clearly and concisely that a person of average intelligence, 
by folbtwing the text, could design and proportion any plumbing installation. 
That this object has in a measure been realized is evidenced by the interest of 
architects, engineers and plumbers in the articles when they first appeared in 
serial form in Modern Samtatiox, and by the large domestic and foreign 
advance sub-^oription for the work in book form. 

It is the intention of the author and publishers to keep 'Principles and 
Practice of Plumbing"" the standard work on plumbing and sanitation, and to 
this end the book will be subject to revision when found necessary. Criticism 
of the subject matter will be welcome, as by fair and intelligent comment its 
value will be enhanced. 

J. J. COSCROVE. 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 

A second edition of "Principles and Practice of Plumbing" Raving beers 
called for, a complete revision of the work seemed advisable to the author. 
Since the book was first published, it has been accepted as the standard work 
on plumbing in this country, and as such is used in over fifty colleges,, 
universities and trade schools throughout the United States. Such a general 
acceptance of the work places upon the author the responsibility o-f keeping 
the book thorough and complete in every respect, and, as many changes have 
taken place in plumbing practice since the original manuscript was written,, 
and numerous queries received since the book was published, have pointed out 
where additional matter could be supplied, the present revision^ which amounts- 
to a rcAvriting of the book, was decided upon that no matter of value would 
be omitted. 

J. J. COSGROVE- 

Ph^iladelphia, Pa., 1914. 



TADLE OF CONTENTS 



Cm A I' IKK. Pace. 

I. riir Drainage System 1 

11. Ilif House Sewer 7 

ill. House Drain 20 

1\'. Proportioning tiie Drainage System 28 

V. Details of the House Drain 39 

\L Siphons and Siplionage 47* 

MI. Soil, Waste and Vent Stacks 56 

\ HI. Example of Drainage System . 63 

IX. Traps and Trapping 87 

X. BIow-OfT Tanks and Refrigerator Wastes 9*) 

XI. Mechanical Discharge Systems 104 

XII. Cold Water Supply 113 

XIII. Solvent Power of Water 119 

XIV. Hydrostatics 129 

XV. Flow of Water Through Pipes 134 

X\ I. Measurement of Water 147 

XVII. Water Hammer 156 

XVIII. Water Supply Pipes 168 

XIX. Cocks and Valves 178 

XX. Details of Water Supply 187 

XXI. Pumps anil Pumping 196 

XXII. Fire Lines 212 

XXHI. Purification of Waters 219 

XXIV. Softening of Water 226 

XXV. Sterilizing Water with L'ltra Violet Rays 234 

XXVI. Prevention of Rusting in Water Pipes and Tanks 238 

XXVII. Hot Water Supply 244 

XXVIII. Tanks for Storing Hot Water 288 

XXIX. Ice- Water Supply 312 

XXX. Water Supply for Suburban Places 318 

XXXI. Plumbing Fixtures 34<) 

XXXH. Swimming Pools 358 

XXXII I. Ai»pendixes 366 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE 
OF PLUMBING 



PART I 

THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM 



CHAPTER I 
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 



Sanitation in modern building is given far more con- 
sideration than at any time in the history of architecture. 
Not only is this true in regard to the increased size of 
living rooms, the provision made for light and air, and the 
introduction of ventilation and heating systems, but m6re 
particularly in the wonderful improvemehts in plumbing, 
both as regards the drainage systems, the water supply and 
the fixtures. The improvements in workmanship, materials 
and the systems of installation have so changed the char- 
acter of plumbing that new^ standards of comparison are 
required to determine the quality^ of work. For instance, 
while formerly plumbing fixtures were hidden in ill-ventil- 
ated, poorly-lighted, out-of-the-way places, and used only as 
necessities, they now occupy a prominent place in the house- 
hold of the intelligent, and have become a luxury as well as 
a necessity. 

The improvements in fixtures consist chiefly in substitut- 
ing earthenware and porcelain enameled, ware for the plain 
iron, copper and wood formerly used; the prohibition of all 
mechanical closets, with their large fouling chambers, and 
adopting instead closet bowls with traps combined that are 
vitreous, non-corrosive and non-absorbent both inside and 
outside; the connecting of all waste pipes from fixtures 
with a trap placed as close to the fixture as possible, and, 
not least in importance, the setting of all fixtures open in- 



2 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

stead of boxing them in wood, thus doing away with the old 
incubators for vermin and catch-alls for filth. 

The improvements in the systems of drainage within a 
building consist of the use of properly proportioned piping, 
the sizes of pipe being determined by calculation instead of 
by guess as of old ; the perfecting of a system of ventilation 
to keep the air within the drains comparatively pure; im- 
provement in the shapes of fittings; increased weight and 
better qualities of pipe used, and better methods of joining 
the pipes; these all contribute their share to the improve- 
ment of the system as a whole. 

Results of 'bacteriological investigations having shown 
that more disease enters a building through the water sup- 
ply than from the drainage system, certain precautions are 
taken to minimize the danger from this source. The source 
of the water supply is selected where there is least danger 
of contamination or infection, and care is taken to protect 
the water from pollution while in storage; also ample time 
is allowed for sedimentation and sunlight to remove bacteria 
before the water is delivered into the distributing mains. 
In some places the municipal supply of water is filtered 
through germ-proof filters before it is delivered to the con- 
sumers. Where this is not done separate house filters may 
be installed by consumers for their own protection. 

Example of a Drainage System. — To those who are 
not familiar with plumbing, there is something complicated 
and bewildering, about an installation, which would seem 
to defy analysis. Anything, however, which is based on a 
system, is simple when the system is understood; and as 
plumbing work is all done according to well defined princi- 
ples, the work is easy of comprehension to those who under- 
stand the underlying principles. In this work the effort 
will be made to rob plumbing of its mystery, and so present 
the explanation that anybody with a fair knowledge of 
building can properly plan work. In doing so, simple illus- 
trations will be used, as simple illustrations show the sys- 
tem followed, which can then be applied to any kind or size 
of installation, while illustrations of large complicated instal- 
lations would be so clogged with detail as to be bewildering. 



Princii)lc.s (uul Pracd'cr of Plundtivq 



^i%l 





^m^ii^^^^^:^^<iM^^:^SfSss>:^f^^M^Mi^ 



IT 



:\\ :\"^.\\\ls>N 



4 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

In the illustration, Fig. 1, is shown in broken perspec= 
tive the general layout of a plumbing system, which includes 
the principal elements of any and all systems. The object 
here is to show the various parts in relation to the whole. 
The various parts will later be examined and described in 
detail. 

The drainage system, it will be seen, starts at the public 
sewer in the street. That portion of the horizontal drain 
extending to within a short distance of the foundation wall 
of the building is known as the house sewer. Inside of the 
foundation wall is a main drain trap and a fresh air inlet 
leading to the atmosphere outside. This trap and fresh air 
inlet it might be well to mention are better omitted ; but as 
they are required by law in some cities, they are here in- 
corporated as showing one of the possible elements in a 
system of plumbing. Continuing from the fresh air inlet 
there is the main house drain which is the horizontal sys- 
tem of piping in the basement or cellar of a building. 

The house drain, as in the present example, may be 
run under the floor, may be run above the floor, or sus- 
pended from the ceiling overhead. All that is necessary is 
to have a positive fall towards the sewer, and run the pipes 
as direct as circumstances will permit. Otherwise the 
designer can use his own judgment as to how the pipe shall 
be run and where it will be located, there being no par- 
ticular way or ways in which it must be done, nor par- 
ticular places in which it must be located. 

A floor drain is shown ready to drain the cellar floor. 
Floor drains are not advisable only in locations where their 
traps will always be sealed with water, but is shown here 
to indicate the manner they are installed. A rain leader is 
shown at the rear of the building. Like the main house 
drain, there is no particular way to run a rain leader, so 
long as it is run direct as possible and with a good fall 
towards the sewer. At the roof or gutter, the leader is 
shown connected with a flexible connection. This is neces- 
sary to take up the variations of length due to the ''creep- 
ing" of the leader stack. Connections are shown taken off" 
the main house drain for rising stacks of soil and waste 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 5 

pipe. Here, again, the simple is the right thing to do. A 
"Y" fitting or "TY" fitting with straight direct run to the 
stacks is always preferable, although a drain can be oflfset 
around an obstacle when necessary, provided there is always 
a good drain to the pipe. 

In the vertical stacks are shown three different methods 
of running lines. To the rear is a waste stack for the 
kitchen sink and laundry trays, which becomes the vent 
stack above the level of the fixtures. In the middle is a 
double line of waste pipes for a couple of lavatories located 
on difi^"erent floors, while to the right is a stack of soil pipe 
with an accompanying vent stack. These stacks are all 
shown run close to the wall, although they may be run at 
any convenient place close to a partition but well away from 
the outside walls ; concealed in partitions, or any other part 
of the building, the only consideration being to keep them 
as much out of the way and as much out of sight as possible. 

It will be noticed that all of the vertical stacks of soil 
and waste pipes extend through the roof where they are 
open to the atmosphere. It will be seen, therefore, that air 
entering the fresh air inlet will keep flowing upward 
through the system of soil waste vent and leader pipes, so 
that the drain air within will be thoroughly diluted with 
fresh air from outside. It is obvious that placing a trap 
at the foot of any of these lines would stop the circulation 
through the lines so trapped, which would be very objection- 
able. For this reason traps are never used at the foot of 
any vertical lines of pipe except rain leaders when they 
open close to doors or windows. 

If the main drain trap and fresh air inlet were omitted, 
there would still be a circulation of air through the system, 
but in that case, the air would first pass through the public 
sewers in the street, thereby keeping the air within as 
freely diluted as that in the drainage system. 

The foregoing shows and explains the principal ele- 
ments of a drainage system. The system might be larger, 
contain more stacks, leaders and branches, extend up 
through a greater number of stories, or be modified in some 
way as will be explained in detail further on. No matter 



6 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

how complicated the system may be, however, it can be 
divided up into the house drain; stacks of soil, waste and 
vent pipes; and the fixture branches from the stacks; and 
these can be laid out by remembering the few fundamental 
requirements for the various elements. 

Requirements of a Plumbing System. — First — An 
adequate supply of water sufficient in volume and pressure 
to flush all the fixtures at one and the same tiine. 

Second — Types of fixtures that are made of porcelain, 
porcelain enamel or some other non-absorbent material are 
set open, and located in well lighted, properly ventilated 
rooms. 

Third — A system having waste pipes large enough to 
carry oflf all waste matter discharged into them, yet not so 
large as not to be self -cleaning. 

Fourth — A system of ventilation so planned as to prop- 
erly ventilate every portion of the drainage system and 
provide relief in tall buildings for the heaved-up air in soil 
stacks when a number of fixtures are in use at the same 
time. 

Fifth — A quality of piping that will neither corrode 
easily nor be affected by sudden changes of temperature, 
and the joints of which can be made as strong as the pipes 
themselves. 

Sixth — A properly graded, perfectly gas and water- 
tight system that will discharge by gravity. 

Seventh — A system so supported throughout its entire 
extent, and so provided with swing joints and flexible con- 
nections as to take up the shrinkages, settlements and tem- 
perature changes of the piping and building without dam- 
age to the fixtures, connections, piping or buildings. 

Eighth — A system of installation that provides turns 
and offsets of easy angles; in which the branches are con- 
nected so as not to interrupt the flow of sewage in the main, 
and that provides clean-outs at such points that the inside 
of the drainage system is accessible throughout its entire 
extent. 



Principle^! and Practice of Plumbing Y 

CHAPTER 11 
THE HOUSE SEWER 



Plumbing systems for buildings consist of the drainage 
system and the system of water supply. Drainage systems 
include the house sewer, house drain, soil waste and vent 
stacks, branch fixture-connections and fixtures. Also in 
some cases the subsoil drainage. 

The house sewer is that portion of the drainage system 
which extends from the street sewer or other place of sew- 
age disposal to a point not less than five feet outside the 
foundation wall. It receives the discharge from the house 
drain rain leaders, yard and area drains, and in some cases 
from the subsoil drains. 

House sewers are generally made of tile pipe, although 
cast-iron pipe is sometimes used. When constructed of tile 
pipe, the pipe should be straight, cylindrical, smooth, free 
from cracks, perfectly burned, and should have a good salt 
glaze over the entire inner and outer surfaces, except the 
inside of hubs and the outside of the spigot end, which 
should be left unglazed, otherwise cement will not adhere 
to the pipe and an imperfect joint will result. 

Tile pipe is made in all standard sizes corresponding 
to iron pipe sizes up to 36 inches in diameter, and are made 
in several diff"erent weights. In Table I are shown the 
various sizes, weights and dimensions of standard weight 
tile sewer pipes. The sizes, dimensions and weights of 
double strength tile sewer pipe can be found in Table II. 
Ordinarily, tile pipes are made in lengths of 2 feet each, 
from inside of socket to end of pipe so that each length will 
lay just 2 feet of pipe. Special lengths of tile are made, 
however, 3 feet long, and these are better than the two-foot 
lengths for sewer purposes, as they reduce almost 50 per 
cent, the number of joints in a sewer. 

Deep and wide socket tile sewer pipes are likwise made. 
That is to say, whereas in ordinary standard 4-inch sewer 
pipe the depth of the hub is only iy.j> inches, with an annular 



8 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



space of 14 inch between the inside of the hub and the out= 
side of the spigot inserted in the hub, in the deep socket pipe, 
the hubs of 4-inch pipe are 2 inches deep with a space of V2 
inch between the inside of the hub and the outside of the 
pipe. This greater depth of hub and width of space makes 
possible a better joint so that deep wide socket tile pipes 3 
feet in length would be the best to use where a water tight 
sewer is required. The weights and dimensions of standard 
deep and wide socket pipes can be found in Table III, while 
the weights, dimensions, and depth of sockets of double 
strength deep and wide socket pipes can be found in 
Table IV. 

TABLE I. Dimensions of Standard Sewer Pipe 



Calibre 


T^l-'-^l « 


Weight 


Depth 


Annular 


Indies 


1 hickness 


per Foot 


of Sockets 


Space 




Inches 


Pounds 


Inches 


Inches 


3 


K 


7 


IH 


H 


4 


Yi 


9 


1% 


Vs 


5 


% 


12 


1% 


Vs 


6 


% 


15 


IVs 


Vs 


8 


% 


23 


2 


Vs 


9 


if 


28 


2 


Vs 


10 


ys 


35 


23^ 


% 


12 


1 


43 


2M 


^2 


15 


13^ 


60 


23^ 


Yi 


18 


iH 


85 


2% 


Vi 


20 


m 


100 


3 


Vi 


21 


1^ 


120 


3 


¥2 


22 


1^ 


130 


3 


¥1 


24 


m 


140 


33^ 


Yi 


27 


2 


224 


4 


V 


30 


2K 


252 


4 


% 


33 


2>i 


310 


5 


IVa 


36 


2>^ 


350 


5 


IM 



Methods of Laying Tile Sewer. — The usual method 
of laying tile house sewers is to dig a trench from the street 
sewer to the house that is to be connected, grading the bot- 
tom to as nearly the required slope as possible and laying the 
pipe on the bottom of the trench. Where the grading is 
imperfectly done, the pipe must be blocked up in the low 
spots to the required grade before the joints are made. 
The joints are made by filling the hubs with mortar made 
of equal parts Portland cement and sand. When drains are 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 9 

thus installed, the bracings under the pipes are seldom 
sufficient to hold the pipe in position while the trench is 
being filled, consequently, the joints are very apt to be 
broken. 

A good method of laying tile pipe is to so dig the trench 
that the bottom will have a proper and uniform grade, then, 
by scooping out where the hubs come, the pipe can be laid 
with a good bearing its entire length on undisturbed earth. 
This method, when properly carried out, is unquestionably 
the best known method of laying tile pipe, but great care 
must be taken in digging the trench so as not to spoil the 
bearing for the pipe by digging below the grade. 

TABLE II. Dimensions of Double Strength Pipe 







Weight 


Depth 


Annular 


Calibre 




per Foot 


of Sockets 


Space 


Inches 




Pounds 


Inches 


Inches 


15 


IK 


75 


21/2 


Vi 


18 


\y> - 


118 


2H 


H 


20 


If '' 


138 


3 


¥i 


21 


1^4 


148 


3 


Yi 


22 


1 5/6 


157 


3 


Yi 


24 


2 


190 


3^ 


Yi 


27 


2^ 


265 


4 


M 


30 


23^ 


290 


4 


% 


33 


2^ 


335 


5 


13^ 


36 


2M 


375 


5 


IK 



A quick method of laying tile pipe is to dig the trench 
to the proper grade and bed a line of planks firmly on the 
bottom; then lay the drain on the planks. By this method 
the time of leveling each length of pipe is saved, also the 
time excavating for the hubs, and if the planks are properly 
graded, the drain is bound to have a proper and uniform 
fall. Some authorities advocate the bedding of tile pipe in 
six inches of concrete, but as the concrete would increase the 
cost of a tile drain to more than the cost of an iron one, it 
would be better to install an iron drain instead. 

Leveling Tile Pipe. — The method usually adopted fur 
leveling tile pipe is to place an ordinary spirit level on each 
length of pipe as it is laid, and raise or lower the free end of 



10 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



the pipe until the level shows it to be at the required grade. 
The objection to this method is that unless the end of each 
length of pipe is properly centered in the preceding hub each 
length might have a good fall while the entire drain might 
be level. A better way is to level from the hubs of the pipe. 
When these are properly graded and the spigot ends of each 
length of pipe blocked to the required height, the entire 
drain will have a true and uniform fall. 

A straight edge long enough to reach at least four of 
the hubs should be used to level drains. A good straight 
edge for this purpose can be made by cutting a straight dry 
piece of white pine six feet long, and jointing the edges per- 



TABLE III. 



Weights and Dimensions of Standard, Deep 
and Wide Sockets 



Calibre 


Thickness 


Weight 


Depth 


Annular 




per Foot 


of Sockets 


Space 


Inches 




Pounds 


Inches 


Inches 


4 


Yi 


10 


2 


Yi 


5 


Vs 


12 


23^ 


% 


6 


Vs 


16 


2)^ 


'A 


8 


% 


25 


234 


Vs 


10 


Vs 


37 


2% 


. H 


12 


1 


45 


3 


% 


15 


13^ 


70 


3 


% 


18 


1^ 


90 


3M 


% 


20 


m 


115 


3^ 


% 


21 


iy2 


130 


3^ 


% 


22 


m 


145 


3% 


% 


24 


1% 


150 


4 


Vs 



fectly straight and square with the sides. It should be 
made as much wider at one end as there will be fall in six 
feet of the sewer ; then, by placing the straight edge on the 
top of the hubs with the wide end toward the outlet, the top 
of the straight edge will be level when the sewer has the 
required fall. 

Most tile pipes are warped a little in burning, so that 
the lengths are not perfectly straight. Care should be 
taken, therefore, when laying a tile sewer to see that the 
bend in crooked lengths is placed at the side and not at the 
top or bottom, where they would form a series of shallow 
pools for the retention of sewage. 



Pv'nn-ipU'^ and Practice af Plunibhuf 



li 



When the tile sewers are laid on planks that are prop- 
erly graded, all that is necessary is to block up the spigot 
ends in the hubs. The pipes will need no further leveling. 

Tile Pipe Joints. — The usual methods of joining tile 
pipes is to fill the annular space between the hub and spigot 
with cement mortar and bank it full in front of the joint. 

When the inside of the hubs and the end of the pipes 
are unglazed, this method makes a very fair joint. How- 
ever, most tile pipe now made have both hub and spigot salt 
glazed, consequently, under such conditions, mortar will not 
adhere to the pipe and the joints soon leak. 

Salt glazed pipe can be made water-tight by first calk- 
ing the hub half full of oakum that has been dipped in 
cement grout, and then cementing the joint as in the first 
instance. The oakum should not be loosely packed in the 



TABLE IV. 



Weights and Dimensions of Double Strength, 
Deep and Wide Sockets 



Calibre 
Inches 


Thickness 
Inches 


Weight, 
per Foot 
Pounds 


Depth 

of Sockets 

Inches 


Annular 
Space 
Inches 


15 
18 
20 
21 
22 
24 


2 


7o 

lis 

1.S8 
148 
157 
100 


3 

3H 

oH 
4 


% 
% 

H 
% 



hub, but should be calked in hard enough to make the joint 
water-tight; the cement gives the joint the necessary 
strength. When tile pipe joints are made with cement 
mortar without first calking the joints with oakum, great 
care should be exercised to remove any cement that might 
be worked through to the inside of the pipe. The cement 
can be removed by placing in the drain a large swab that 
completely fills the bore of the pipe, and drawing it along a 
couple of feet each time a length of pipe is laid. 

The pipe joints are sometimes made with asphalt; the 
joints are first made tight by calking with oakum and then 



12 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

poured full with hot asphalt. For many purposes asphalt 
joints are preferable to cement joints; they are lighter, 
more flexible, and not so likely to be broken by a settlement 
of the ground or by jarring of the pipe when the trench is 
being filled. 

Tile pipe joints can likewise be made with ''Leadite" 
and will withstand an internal pressure of 5 to 7 pounds or 
more without leaking. Leadite is a lead-like material which 
is poured while in a molten condition into the hubs. Unlike 
lead, it expands slightly upon cooling, thereby filling all the 
little cavities and crevices of the hub and spigot, making 
them tight without calking. All that is necessary in mak- 
ing a Leadite joint is to calk the hub first with oakum, then 
pour the Leadite. 

Where Tile Sewer Pipe May Be Used. — Tile pipe 
should be used for house sewers only when a natural bed of 
earth or rock can be obtained to lay it on. It should not be 
used even then if it is exposed to frost, discharges into a 
cesspool or passes near a well, spring or other source of 
water supply. The chief objection to the use of tile pipe for 
house sewers is the unsatisfactory joints between the 
lengths. During dry weather or in localities where the 
ground water is low, sewage escapes from the sewer into the 
earth and might wear a channel to some nearby well, cis= 
tern, or other source of water supply. During wet weather, 
or in localities vv^here the ground water is high, water enters 
the sewer through the joints, a condition that might prove 
expensive in case the sewage is treated at a disposal plant,* 

Another not uncommon source of trouble from leaky 
joints are roots of trees that enter in search of water and 
in course of time completely obstruct the drain. 

Piping for Alkali and Acid Wastes. — Although tile 
pipe as a rule is not so desirable as cast iron pipe for house 
sewers, and is seldom satisfactory for a main house drain, 
there are conditions under which it is better than ordinary 
soil pipe, but not so good as high-silica cast-iron pipe. 

*At Gi'innell, Iowa, tbe flow of sewage in wet weather is from three to four 
times the volume of water pumped from the city wells. No permanent water 
level, steepage at depths varying from 10 to 40 feet. 



^ 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing IS 

In chemical works, soda works, print works, plating- 
works and other industries where iron pipe is destroyed by 
the acid, tile pipes will prove the better material when 
properly laid. In such cases the tile drain might well be 
bedded in concrete 6 inches thick, with 1 inch of cement 
mortar immediately surrounding the pipe. Where neces- 
sary to run vertical pipes to vats, or overhead horizontal 
pipes, the concrete can be reinforced and tile pipes used. 

This makes a costly installation and, should the joints 
open, the acids will attack the concrete, w^hich then fails in 
time. The glaze on tile pipe will resist most commercial 
acids, but when the glaze is gone, the biscuit ware forming 
the body of the pipe proves less resistant. 

Cast-Iron Acid Wastes. — Soil pipe and fittings, in all 
commercial sizes of ordinary extra-heavy cast-iron pipe, also 
a special size IV2 inches in diameter, with a full line of 
soil-pipe fittings, are now made from high-silica cast iron, 
which will resist all commercial acids, but not sodas or 
other alkalies. The high-silica soil pipes are put out under 
trade names like "Duriron," and are put together with lead 
calked joints. Instead of oakum, asbestos rope is used as 
a packing. **Duriron" is an iron silicide containing about 
14.5% Silicon, .8% Carbon, and .35% Manganese, and pos- 
sesses physical properties as follows: 

Melting Point about 2300 Fahr. 

Specific Gravity 7.00 

Weight per cubic inch 0.253 lbs. 

Hardness (Shore Scleroscope) 49 to 31 

Contraction allowance in cast 3/16" per ft. 

Coefficient of expansion 00001565 per deg. Fahr. 

Compression strength 70,000 lbs. per sq. in. 

Tensile strength 10,000 lbs. per sq. in. 

Transverse strength. .. 1000 lbs. with deflection between 1/16 and 

Vh in. 

"Duriron" is a cast metal, extremely hard and close 
grained. It shows a white fracture and takes a high polish. 
It will not soften materially nor lose its shape at a tempera- 
ture a little below its melting point, and shows practically 
no oxidation at this temperature. 



14 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



Owing to its extreme hardness, high-silica cast iron 
cannot be machined with cutting tools, but is finished by- 
grinding. The high-silica pipes now on the market contain 
as high as 14.5% of silica. When the percentage reaches 
16, the pipes will be immune to all acids. Report of a 
Government test on "Duriron" can be found in Table V. 

**Duriron" sinks, vats, kettles and other acid-resisting 
containers are also made. 



TABLE V. Report on Corrosive Tests on Diiriron 

By U. S. Bureau of Standards, April 24, 1020. 
Cold Corrosive Tests (15° to 20° C) Duration, 120 Days. 



Solution and Concentration 
by "Weight 



Sulphiiric acid 95% 

Sulphuric acid 25% 

Sulphuric acid 10% 

Nitric acid 70% 

Nitric acid 25% 

Nitric acid 10% 

Hydrochloric acid 25% 

Hydrochloric acid 5% 

Acetic acid 99% 

Phosphoric acid 87% 

Phosphoric acid 25% 

Phosphoric acid 10% 

OxaHcacid7.9-%* 

Oxalic acid 2. l%t 

Alum 15% cryst* 

Picric acid 9. l%t 

Copper sulphate 25% cryst. 
Arnmonium Chloride 27% . . 

Ferric Chloride 48% 

Ferric Chloride 7% 

Oleic acid, comnal 

Bromine, C. P 

Pyrogallic acid 31% 





- 












(0 a) ra 


fl « a 


o in 


JH.2 o- 








oj o 


37.69 


116.5601 


.COS 


.12 


.007 


66.15 


109.5050 


.OlS 


.27 


.016 


65.34 


103.4191 


. 026 


.40 


.025 


66.60 


108.7927 


.007 


.11 


.006 


64.95 


108.4709 


.008 


.12 


.007 


65.81 


110.4582 


.000 


.000 


.000 


65.50 


107.5262 


3.078 


46.99 


2.862 


65.35 


106.1607 


1.234 


18.90 


1.162 


66.63 


111.9367 


.007 


.11 


.006 


66.98 


111.7125 


.007 


.11 


.006 


66.31 


113.7571 


.011 


.17 


.010 


66.25 


111.3789 


.009 


.14 


.008 


67.20 


112.9180 


.016 


.24 


.014 


66.49 


109.4271 


.014 


.21 


.013 


66.92 


114.4460 


.007 


.11 


.006 


64.62 


103.9213 


.005 


.08 


.005 


67.49 


117.8332 


.009 


.13 


.008 


65.05 


103.1788 


.037 


.57 


.026 


65.49 


111.2925 


.015 


.23 


.013 


66.42 


113.6637 


.018 


.27 


.016 


65.84 


108.9583 


.003 


.05 


.003 


65.92 


107.4264 


19.785 


300.14 


18.42 


65.28 


109.0550 


.008 


.12 


.007 



^ o ^ 



0000206 
0000463 
0000685 
0000188 
0000206 
none 
00805 
00324 
0000188 
0000188 
0000292 
000024 
0000412 
000036 
0000188 
0000137 
0000223 
0000977 
0000395 
0000463 
00000857 
0515 
0000206 



^Saturated solution at 20° C. fM Sat. Sol. at 20° C. JSat. Sol. in ethyl alcohol 

Lead has been used to some extent for acid wastes, also 
lead-lined iron pipes. Lead is suitable for only a few acids, 
however, and there is a weak spot at every joint where the 
continuity of the lead lining is broken. 

The comparative resistance of ''Duriron'' and other 
metals to various acids is shown in Table VL This shows in 



Principles and Practice of Pliunbing 



15 



< 



4> 



T3 
C 

CO 

(A 

o 



s 
o 



0> 

c 
a 

•SS 



PQ 
< 



3 o 

C3i 



3 O 



O' 









O 



T3.X, "*» 
0) c o 



O 



C4 

O 

c 



>-0 Oti o 
O CO 

o o o 






cc 



Q 



CO 



O CI 

00 

o CO 



.23 
P 



Q 






(M 
I- 



<M 



CO 
CI 



(M 



l- 



<M 



■•S: 01 



O 



rf >0 CO 

-r ^ ci; 

o o o 



Q 



o 
o 



(M 



^ CO 

o 



2 M o flJ 
— ' -tf ci o rt ctj 

a^ Q Q 



.23 



e:; cr 



Cfi 



73 • . is "' . a 



o 









CD ci v: 
O 1-1 fj ^ 



Q 






-^i r-" 3 
> O 3 ^ -rj 

CI K* X < 



0/ -t:: o 
O X^ 1^ "^ 






o CO 

CO 

o -* 

CI '-I 






CO 



CO 



o 
CO 



O 00 

o 

O CI 



w O 



' — *^ ri O d 



cr 



o 



.rr o 



Q Q 



CO 



00 



CI 

00 



CI 



CO 

CO 

CI 



CI 

o 



00 



C5 



o 



CO 

1— ( 



CO 

o 



CO 



y-( CO 

o crs t-. 
iO o o 



CO 

00 



<— I CO 
CO »o 



O 00 
CO '^ 



O CO 00 
CI "^ 

CO I- o 



a: 

d cr c ;- 

o w o o 

O '43 ;-< '^U ^ 

— ' -^ ci a oi tc 

Ql C ^ O 

fi. Q Q 












t* 



a> 






a. 






«5 




fa 


a 






rt 




o 


:^ 


• 


(-> 


til 




o 




"X 


1-i 


















\ 


a 




o 




>.<? 


O'.a 




i!) 




4-< 




>. 


C3 


« 


a 










o -tJ 


5 


o 


^ 


O 


■-i 


fl 


^ 


o 




n< 








© 




.^w 


i5 





J 


^ 


ZJ 


CJ 


wl 


.o 








.-. 


•'^ 


o 


o 


CJ 










f-S 


X> <D 


s 


3 


c 


o 


o 


y; 


;_, 


u 


P 


0; 


0) 














bit 


o 








o 


O 


CI 


XI- 

3-" 



.a 
to 



16 Principles arid Practice of Plumbing 

percentage the loss in weight of the various metals when 
exposed to sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric and acetic acids. 
These four are the ones most commonly encountered in 
laboratory work, so it would be necessary for a waste pipe 
from a laboratory sink to resist all of them. 

The various lead pipes are fairly satisfactory with 
sulphuric acid, but are violently attacked by nitric, and to a 
less extent by hydrochloric and acetic acids. Copper will 
not withstand any of the acids mentioned, and aluminum 
does only fairly well with acetic. Cast iron and wrought 
iron are not so violently attacked by acetic acid, but are 
dissolved in a short time by the other acids. High-silica 
pipe, on the other hand, is highly resistant to all the acids 
mentioned. 

Fibre Conduit for Acid or Alkali. — High-silica cast 
iron will not resist alkali or soda wastes. There is, how- 
ever, a composition fibre conduit made by the Fibre Conduit 
Company, Orangeburg, New York, which will resist both 
acids and alkalis. The conduit was designed originally for 
the construction of underground electric subway systems, 
but has been found adapted to the waste from sinks in 
chemical laboratories. Pipe and fittings are put together 
with screw threads by means of couplings, and an acid- 
alkali-proof compound. A group of those fittings can be 
seen in Fig. 2. 

Iron Pipe House Sewers. — An iron pipe house sewer 
possesses many advantages over a tile pipe sewer. It is not 
so easily broken by settlement of the earth; the joints are 
perfectly gas and water tight and can not be broken by 
carelessness in filling the trench; the sewer is not so likely 
to be affected by upheavals from frost ; it can safely be laid 
close to wells, cisterns or other sources of water supply, in 
any kind of soil, and it costs but a trifle more than the tile 
pipe sewer. Iron pipe sewers should be constructed of cast 
iron pipe; wrought iron or steel pipes are not suitable for 
this purpose, owing to their comparatively short life when 
buried in the earth.* 

*See appendix for leiigtli of life of cast-iron and wrought pipe when buried 
in soil. 



Principles and Practice of Pbimbinp 



17 



Cast-iron pipe sewers may be standard or extra heavy 
in weight, and either plain or coated. Coated pipe is 
covered both inside and out with a protective coating of 
pitch or asphalt, applied hot. This coating is beneficial in 
many ways — it prolongs the life of the pipe by protecting 
it from contact with the earth and sewage, and reduces the 
frictional resistance by forming a smooth surface. At the 
same time the coating helps to conceal sand holes and other 
defects, for which reason the pipe is better installed 
uncoated. 









Fig. 2— Fibre Fittings for Acid Alkali Wastes 



Cast-iron pipe should be sound, cylindrical, smooth, 
free from cracks, sand holes or other defects, of a uniform 
thickness and of the average weights per lineal foot shown 
in Table VII. 

Standard weight pipe can be made tight when great 
care is exercised in cutting the pipe and calking the joints. 
Nevertheless, it should be used only on the smaller and less 
important of installations. 

Cast-iron fittings should conform in all respects to all 
requirements of their respective grades of pipe. 

Joints of cast-iron pipe may be lead calked, leadite 
poured, lead wool calked or made with rust joints. 



18 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



Lead Calked Joints are made by calking a ring of 
oakum tightly into the hub of a pipe or fitting, and then 
filling the hub with molten lead. The lead contracts in bulk 
on cooling, and must be calked to expand it against pipe and 
hub to make a gas- and water-tight joint. Three-quarters 
of a pound of pure soft pig lead for each inch in diameter of 
the pipe is found sufficient for each joint under ordinary 
conditions; however, when a cut piece of pipe is being 
calked, a greater depth of lead is needed to compensate for 
the loss of the ring on the spigot end of the pipe. Two 
ounces of oakum are likewise required for each inch in 
diameter of the pipe. 



TABLE VIL Sizes and Weights of Cast-iron Pipes 




Average Weights i 


3er Lineal Foot, 




Including Hubs 


Inside Diameter 






of Pipe 








Standard 


Extra Heavy 


2 inches 


33^ pounds 


b}/2 pounds 


3 inches 


43^2 pounds 


9J4 pounds . 


4 inches 


6}/^ pounds 


13 pounds 


5 inches 


8/4 pounds 


17 pounds 


6 inches 


1034 pounds 


20 pounds 


7 inches 


13 pounds 


27 pounds 


8 inches 


18 pounds 


333/2 pounds 


10 inches 


25 pounds 


44 pounds 


12 inches 


30 pounds 


54 poimds 


15 inches 


45 pounds 









Rust Joints are used in the drainage systems of 
chemical works, where the acids would affect lead joints; 
also they are used in cases where a line of pipe will be sub- 
jected to such a range in temperature that the alternate 
expansion and contraction would work lead out of the joints. 

Rust joints are made by calking a ring of oakum into 
the hub, and filling the hub with a mixture composed of : 

Flour of sulphur 1 part 

Sal-ammoniac 1 part 

Iron borings 98 parts 

When a slow-setting rust mixture is desired, 198 parts 
of iron chips are used in place of 98 parts. A preparation 



Pnnciples and Practice of Plumbing 19 

is now sold ready to use under the trade name **Smooth-on," 
which is easier to apply, quicker to set, and is stronger than 
rust joint. While it is more costly than a rust mixture, it 
is cheaper to use in the end on account of the greater quant- 
ity of work that can be done by its use, and the time saved 
ill mixing the ingredients. 

Connection to Street Sewer. — House sewers should 
be connected to street sewers at an angle of about forty-five 
degrees, except in the case of large brick street sewers, 
when the house sewer may enter at right angles. Connec- 
tions to brick sewers should be made at the side just above 
the springing line of the arch. They should never be made 
below the water line in the sewer. In tile street sewers, Y 
branches are usually provided at intervals of about twenty- 
five feet, to which house sewers may be connected. When 

branch connections are 
omitted in the street sewer 
a length of pipe should be 
removed at the proper loca- 
tion and a Y branch sub- 
stituted. A hole should 
never be cut in a tile street 
sewer for the house sewer 
FiK. :; to be connected into. 

House sewers discharg- 
ing into tide water should enter below the low water level, 
and a vent should be placed in the sewer above the high 
water level to prevent tide water from air locking the 
sewer. When a plumbing system that drains into tide 
water is at so low a level that high tide will overflow some 
of the fixtures or fill the house sewer, a tide water trap, 
Fig. 3 should be placed on the end of the sewer to prevent 
tide water entering the pipe. 

The usual practice is to make the house sewer one or 
two sizes larger than the house drain. A better practice, 
however, is to continue the housQ sewer the same size as 
the house drain. By so doing, a uniform velocity of flow 
is secured in both, and, when the house drain is rightly pro- 
portioned, a scouring action is assured. 




I'.iuk W;it«T Trji]) 



20 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



CHAPTER III 
HOUSE DRAIN 



Definition of a House Drain. — A house drain is the 
system of horizontal piping inside of the cellar or basement 
of a building, that extends to and connects with the house 
sewer. It receives the discharge of sewage from all soil 
and waste lines, and sometimes rain water from rain lead- 
ers, yard, cellar, area and sub-soil drains. 

House drains are generally located below the cellar or 
basement floor, w^here they are entirely out of the way. 
When properly installed with suitable materials 
and with clean-out plugs extending flush with the 
floor, there is no objection to this method of in- 
stallation. In some buildings 
where the house drain is to be 
located below the floor, brick 
ducts with removable covers of 
iron or stone are provided to en- 
case it. 

In buildings where the base- 
ment floor is below the level of the street sewer, 
the house drain is of necessity located above the 
cellar floor. The only objection to this method 
of installation is the fact that the network of pipes forming 
the house drain interferes with the head room of the cellar. 

Materials for the House Drain. — When buried in 
the earth, house drains should be constructed of cast-iron 
pipe. In buildings over two stories in height they should 
be made of extra heavy cast-iron pipe; in small cottages 
standard pipe may be used. 

House drains located in ducts or suspended above 
floors may be of wrought pipe with special cast-iron re- 
cessed drainage fittings which present smooth, continuous 
inner surfaces to the flow of sewage, as shown in Fig. 4. 
The wrought pipe and cast-iron fitting, should be coated 




Fig. 4 

Recessed Drainage 

Fittinff 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



21 



with asphalt, sherardized,* or galvanized both inside anfl 
out, and the ends of all pipes that screw into fittings should 
be reamed to remove the burr formed by cutting. Tile 
should be used in the construction of a house drain only in 
the cases pointed out in the paragraphs on house sewers. 

Connections to House Drains. — Connections to 
house drains should be made with Y fittings, as shown at a 
in Fig. 5. AY fitting gives the branch h an angle of forty- 
five degrees, and if it is to be run parallel with the main 
drain or at right angles to it, the change of direction can be 
effected by using a one-eighth bend, c or (/. A T fitting 
should never be used in any part of a drainage system which 




Fig. 5 
Adaptability of Soil Pipe Fittings 

receives the discharge of sewage, although they may be 
used in connection with the vent pipes. A TY fitting, e, 
if made with large sweeping curve so that it is almost equal 
to a Y fitting and one-eighth bend, may be used in any part 
of the drainage system. Short curve TY fittings, however, 
should never be used in a horizontal drain, although they 
may be used on the vertical stacks of soil and waste pipes. 
The end of a long horizontal drain w^here it turns up to form 
a soil or waste stack may well terminate with a clean-out 
plug in the end of a Y fitting, as shown in Fig. 6, with the 
branch of the Y forming the stack connection. If, how- 

•Sherardizing process for j»roi feting metjils is oxplaiiied in appendix. 



kjLi 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 




Fig. 6 
Fittiug aud One-Eia'btli Bend 



ever, the horizontal drain is but a short branch of the main 
drain, or is a rain leader, a heel rest quarter bend, similar to 
Fig. 7, with a radius of over three or four times the 
diameter of the pipe may be used. Saddle hubs should 
never be used for connecting to any part of the drainage 
system. Changes in the direction of horizontal drains 
should be made at angles of forty-five degrees, or with large 
radius quarter bends. 

Clean-out Ferrules. — A clean- 
out ferrule is a metallic sleeve or 
ferrule calked into the hub of a 
soil pipe or fitting, and having a 
removable plug which can be taken 
out when necessary to gain access 
to the inside of the drain. A 
clean-out ferrule is shown in 
Fig. 8. 

The body of a clean-out ferrule 
is made of brass or cast-iron; fit- 
tings of either metal may be used, although cast-iron clean- 
out ferrules are the better. They are thicker, heavier, more 

rigid and easier to make tight than 
brass ferrules, and not so easily 
bent out of shape when being 
calked. The plug for clean-out fer- 
rules should be of brass, at least 
J-, one-quarter inch thick, and the en- 
gaging parts have at least six 
standard iron pipe threads; also 
they should have a square or hexa- 
gonal nut, at least one inch high 
and one and one-half inches in 
diameter, so that the nut can be firmly gripped by a wrench 
when necessary to tighten or unscrew the plug. 

When clean-out plugs are set flush with the floor, in- 
stead of a nut, the screv/ plug should have a countersunk 
socket. 

Clean-out ferrules up to five inches in diameter should 
be the full size of the pipes, and should be so located in a 




Loiij 



Fig. 7 
Sweep Quarter Bend 
With Heel Rest 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



23 



system of house drains that the interior of the entire system, 
from the street sewer to the farthermost branch, will be 
accessible. A full sized clean-out ferrule should be calked 
in the end or branch hub of a Y fitting 
placed in the house drain where it enters 
the building as shown in Fig. 9, so in case 
of stoppage in the house sewer a rod can 
be pushed clear through the house sewer 
to the street sewer to dislodge the obstruc- 
tion. In waste pipes from kitchen or 
scullery sinks, or other fixtures in which 
large quantities of grease are emptied, 
clean-out ferrules should be provided 
about every ten feet along horizontal runs 
through which to remove grease which, 
when chilled, adheres to the sides of the pipes to such an 
extent as to sometimes completely close the bore. Clean- 




Fi.n-. s 
Clean-Out Ferriilo 



Fresh Air Inlef 




Fig. !) 
House Drain 

out ferrules should also be provided in all main drains, 

yard, area or rain leader traps, but are never required in 

verticle stacks of 
pipes. Before a 
clean-out plug is 
screwed into its 
ferrule the 
threads should be 
lubricated with 
graphite. This is 
to prevent the 

threads from corroding and sticking when the plug is to be 

removed. 






Fi;,'. 10 
SniiiHirls for IIousc I)iain 



24 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 





Fig. 11 
Rigid Pipe Hanger 



Fig. 12 
Pipe Bracket 



Supports for House Drains. — House drains above the 
cellar floor should be firmly supported throughout their 
entire extent by rests or hangers spaced about ten feet apart 
and placed near the hubs and under branch fittings for 

raising lines. When 
the house drain is 
run close to the cel- 
lar floor, brick piers 
or pipe rests as 
shown in Fig. 10, 
are generally used; 
when run some dis- 
tance above the 
floor, the drain may 
be secured to the 
side wall by rigid pipe hangers similar to the ones shown 
in Fig. 11, or by pipe brackets similar to the one shown in 
Fig. 12, which ought to be secured to the masonry by means 
of expansion bolts. When run near the ceiling, the drain 
should be supported by iron pipe hangers fastened to the 
beams overhead. If iron 
beams support the ceiling 
overhead, hangers with 
beam clamps similar to that 
shown in Fig. 13 may be 
used. If, on the other 
hand, the building is of 
wooden floor construction, 
hangers with lag screws 
similar to that shown in 
Fig. 14 may be used. Pipe 
hooks should not be used to 
support the house drain, 
because they are not suf- 
ficiently strong or reliable. 

In reinforced concrete construction, screw sockets are 
attached to the forms so they will be cast in the concrete 
and hanger rods can be screwed into them. 





Fig. 14 

Adjustable Pipe 

Haugei- for 
Wooden Beams 



Fig. i:'. 

Adjustable Pipe 
Hanger for 
Iron Beams 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



25 




Fig. 15 
Main Drain Trap 



Main Drain Trap. — A main drain trap is seldom, if 
ever, necessary in plumbing practice for sanitary reasons, 
although they are legally necessary in some cities, being 
required by their codes. Where for any reason a trap is 
required it should be located inside of the foundation wall 
in an accessible position and as close to the wall as practi- 
cable. The only fitting intervening between the main drain 
trap and the foundation wall should be a clean-out Y. 
When there is no cellar under a building, the trap should 
be placed outside of the foundation wall below frost level 
and a brick manhole built around it to make it accessible. 
A main drain trap should have two clean-out hubs as 
shown in Fig. 15, in which to calk clean- 
out ferrules; and these hubs should never 
be used for other purposes. Main drain 
traps should be set perfectly level with 
regard to their water seals. If the heel 
of a trap is tipped up, the dip of the trap 
will not retain sufficient water to form an 
effective seal ; and if the outlet to the trap 
is tipped up, too much water will be retained in the trap 
and backed up into the house drain. 

Mason traps, full S traps, three-quarter S traps, half 
S traps, traps without clean-outs or with clean-outs that 
are made tight with putty or gasket joints, 
should never be used. 

Sewer and Tide Water Traps. — Some 
street sewers are so small that 
water overflows the manholes in 
the street during excessive rain 
storms. When a drainage sys- 
tem is connected to such a sewer 
it should be provided with a 
tide-water trap, and if any fixtures in 
the building are located below the level 
of the street, a quick-closing lever han- 
dle gate valve similar to Fig 16 should ,,. ,,. 
also be provided to cut off the water in Qni«k closing Gate vaivo 
case the tide water valve leaks. When there are no fixtures 




26 



Pidnciples and Practice of Plumbing 




connected to the drainage system below the level of the 
street, the tide water trap should be located where the main 
house drain enters the building. When, however, the code 
requires a main drain trap, the tide water trap ought to be 
located on the street side of the main drain trap. However, 
when fixtures are located at lower levels than the street 
surface, they all should discharge into one branch of the 
house drain, and the tide water trap and quick-closing valve 
should be placed on that branch. By this arrangement of 
the valve and tide water trap all fixtures above the street 

level can be used during over- 
flow periods without over- 
flowing the fixtures at lower 
levels, as would be the case if 
the gate valve and tide water 
trap were placed in the main 
drain or near the main drain 
trap. A tide water or back- 
water trap has already been 
shown, and in Fig. 17 is 
shown a combination house- 
drain and tide-water trap with the side of the trap partly 
broken away and a cover removed to show the interior. 

Floor Drains. — In breweries, stables, washrooms, bot- 
tling establishments, hotel kitchens or other places where 
sufficient water is poured or splashed on the floor to main- 
tain the seal of a trap, floor 
drains are permissible. A floor 
drain is shown in Fig. 18. These 
fixtures should be provided with 
heavy brass or iron removable 
strainers and v/ater seal and, 
when subject to tide or storm- 
water floods, a tide water trap. 
Floor drains should never be 
used in cellars or basements of 
buildings unless they are pretty 

sure to be kept sealed with water ; even then they are ob- 
jectionable, and, if used, should be provided with a tide 



Fig. 17 
Sewer and Tide Water Trap 




Fig. IS 
Floor Drain 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 27 

water trap to prevent an overflow of sewage should the 
main drain become stopped up. A deep seal trap is desir- 
able for a floor drain. With a deep seal, the water is not 
so liable to be lost by evaporation, and the seal destroj^ed, 
provided it is re-charged at least once a year. Hot, dry air 
is seldom found in cellar or basement, and without dry air, 
little evaporation will take place. 

Floor drains with water connections are sometimes 
required in hospitals, morgues, operating rooms and like 
places. The valve controling the water is located at the 
wall at a convenient height and place. 



28 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER IV 
PROPORTIONING THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM 



Velocity of Flow in Drains. — Street sewers and long- 
house sewers should be given such an inclination that the 
sewage will have a velocity of from 180 to 360 feet per min- 
ute. With a velocity much less than 180 feet per minute, 
the water will fail to carry along the solids held in suspen- 
sion, and with a greater velocity than 360 feet per minute, 
the water will run away from the more slowly moving 
solids. The best velocity for sewage is about 270 feet per 
minute, and sewer pipes should be run at the proper inclina- 
tion to produce this velocity. Pipes of small diameter offer 
greater frictional resistance than those of large diameter, 
therefore, they must be given a greater fall to produce the 
required velocity. The proper inclination for drains of 
any diameter and length to produce a velocity of 270 feet 
per minute, can be found by the formula: 

iz=z , when f = fall in feet, 1 = length of drain in feet, d = diameter of 

10 d 

pipe in inches. 
Example — What fall should a 6-inch drain, 40 feet long, have to give to 
the sewage a velocity of 270 feet per minute? 

Solution — In this case, 1 = 40 feet, d = 6 inches. Therefore, 

f 1= rr: .66 feet or 8 inches fall per 40 feet of drain. 

10X6 

, Expressed in the form of a rule, the foregoing formula 

reads : 

Rule — To one foot of fall in the drain, alloiv a length of 
ten feet of pipe for each inch in the diameter of the pipe. 

From the foregoing formula and rule the grades to be 
given to different sizes of pipe to produce a velocity of 270 
feet per minute have been obtained and are given in Table 
VIII. 

The accepted practice in plumbing is to run the drain 
pipes at a pitch of not less than 14 inch to the foot, and 
most calculations for the proportioning of house drains are 
based on a fall of 14 oi' V2 inch per foot. 



Principles (uid F met ice of Plumbing 



29 



Size of House Drains. — A house drain should be large 
enough to carry off the greatest probable amount of water 
or sewage that Avill be discharged into it, without being too 
large to be self-cleaning. It should never be smaller than 
the outlet to the largest fixture discharging into the drain- 
age system, and as traps of siphon jet and other improved 
forms of water closets range in size from 1% to 3 inches in 
diameter, a house drain into which a water closet discharges 
never should be smaller than 3 inches in diameter. 

The size of a house drain is determined by the amount 
of water or sewage it must conduct. 

TABLE VIII. Fall for Drains 



Diameter of pipe in inches 

Length of drain in feet 

Total fall to drain in inches 

I'all per foot in inches (approximate. 



2 


3 


4 


5 





7 


S 


9 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


3/5 


2/5 


VIC 


1/4 


1/5 


1/6 


1/7 


1/8 



10 
]W 

12 
1/0 



In drainage systems that receive the rain water from 
roof, yard and areas, the amount of impervious surface to 
be drained and the rate of precipitation, generally deter- 
mine the size of the pipe. It has been found from measure- 
ments that the total amount of sewage passing a given point 
in the house drain of an ordinary building in a certain 
period of time is less than one-fortieth the amount of rain 
water that during excessive rain storms will pass the same 
point in an equal period of time. In small buildings, there- 
fore, if the house drain is made sufficiently large to carry off 
all rain water from the projected roof, yard and area sur- 
face during excessive and prolonged storms no extra pro- 
vision need be m.ade for the small amount of sewage that 
will be discharged into the drain during short periods of 
excessive precipitation, which seldom exceed five minutes in 
duration. 

In large buildings where the rain water and a large 
volume of sewage discharge into the same drainage system, 
the quantity of rain water to be removed should be added to 
the sewage, and the drain made large enough to carry them 
both. 



30 



Principles and Practice of Plumhing 



The maximum intensity of rainfall, for periods of five, 
ten and sixty minutes, at weather bureau stations equipped 
with self-registering gauges, compiled from all available 
records, can be found in Table IX. 

From this table it will be seen that the maximum rate 
of precipitation varies greatly in different parts of the 
countrj^ therefore when designing a drainage system for a 
certain locality to take care of the rain water, the maximum 
rate of precipitation for five minutes in that locality must 
be taken into consideration in determining its size. When 
the rate for any particular neighborhood is unknown, the 

*TABLE IX. Intensity of Rainfalls 



Stations 
6666 



Bismark 

St. Paul 

New Orleans. 
iNIihvaukee. . 
Kansas City 
^Yashington. . 
Jacksonville. . 

Detroit 

N.Y.City... 

Boston 

Savannah. . . 
Indianapolis. . 
Memphis. . . . 

Chicago 

Galveston . . . 

Omaha 

Dodge City. . 

Norfolk 

Cleveland — 

Atlanta 

Key West. . . . 
Philadelphia. 
St. Louis. — 
Cincinnati. . . 

Denver 

Duluth 

Grand Totals 
Averages 



Max. 








Rate in 


R 


ate of Downfall 


ier 


Feet per 




Hour for 




Hour 








5 Min. 


5 ISIin. 


10 Min. 


60 Min. 


Feet 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


.75 


9.00 


6.00 


2.00 


.70 


8.40 


6.00 


1.30 


.68 


8.16 


4.86 


2.18 


.65 


7.80 


4.20 


1.25 


.65 


7.80 


6.60 


2.40 


.63 


7.50 


5.10 


1.78 


.62 


7.44 


7.08 


2 20 


,60 


7.20 


6.00 


2 15 


,60 


7.20 


4.92 


1 60 


.56 


6.72 


4.98 


1.68 


.55 


6.60 


6.00 


2.21 


.55 


6.60 


3.90 


1.60 


.55 


6.60 


4.80 


1.86 


.55 


6.60 


5.92 


1.60 


.54 


6.48 


5.58 


2.55 


.50 


6.00 


4.80 


1.55 


.50 


6.00 


4.20 


1.34 


.48 


5.76 


5.46 


1.55 


.47 


5.64 


3.66 


1.12 


.46 


5.46 


5.46 


1.50 


.45 


5.40 


4.80 


2.25 


.45 


5.40 


4.02 


1.50 


.40 


4.80 


3.84 


2.25 


.38 


4.56 


4.20 


1.70 


.30 


3.60 


3.30 


1.18 


.30 


3.60 


2.40 


1.35 


13.8726 


166.32 


128.18 


45.65 


.53 


6.40 


4.54 


1.76 



*Report of the Cbief of the Weather Bureau, 1896-97. A table of lineal 
inches iu decimal fractious of a lineal foot is given in Appendix I. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 31 

maximum precipitation at the nearest known station may be 
taken, or a rate of six inches per hour assumed. 

The method of calculating the diameter of a drain for 
any locality is as follows : 

Multiply the area in square feet of the surface to be 
drained by the maximum rate of precipitation in feet per 
hour in that locality, and divide by 60; this will give the 
number of cubic feet of water to be removed per minute. 
Having determined this quantity, the diameter in inches of 
the pipe required can be found by dividing by 350, extract- 
ing the square root and multiplying by 12. This can be 
expressed by the formula : 

tl r= 12 ^ ^ ^-, in which il = diameter of pipe in inches, a = square feet of 
l'21000 

area to l)e drained, p = maxinuim rate of precipitation in feet per hour, 

21000 — 350 X 60. 

Example — What size of drain will be required in Kansas City to drain a 
ro(tf and otiier impervious surfaces 40 X 200 feet, the drain being laid at a 
grade of *,4 inch to the foot? 

Solution— The area a to be drained r= 40 X 200 = 8000 square feet. 
The maximum rate of precipitation for Kansas City (see Table IX) is 



7.8 inches = ^-^ or .65 foot per hour. Therefore, d = 12 J?999J<:^' ^^^^ 
12 M 21000 

square root of ..^n^^ — •'^^^' ^"^^ ^^ X -496 = 5.952 inches, the diameter 

of the pipe required to drain 8000 square feet impervious surface in Kansas 
City. That is practically a 6" pipe. 

Drains are sometimes laid at grades which produce 
greater or less velocities than 270 feet per minute; when so 
laid, the capacities of the pipes can be easily ascertained by 
referring to Table X, which gives the velocity of flow and 
the number of cubic feet discharged per minute by specified 
sizes of pipes when laid at different grades. When the area 
of impervious surface to be drained, the maximum rate of 
precipitation, and the grade at which drain is to be laid, are 
known, the quantity of storm water to be removed can be 
calculated and the size of pipe required to remove it can 
then be found by this table. 



32 Princivles and Practice of Plumbing 

TABLE X. Capacity of Drains Running Full 

Velocity in feet per minute as determined by the formula v — 3,000 



1 



V<3 



and discbarge in cubic feet per minute by the formula Or=V A of drains laid 
at different grades when running full. 

In which Y — Telocity in feet per minute 
Ar=area of pipe in feet 
h:::^head in feet 
l^^length of the pipe in feet 
d^:^diameter of the pipe in feet 



Diam. 


2 Inches 


i 2V-> 


Inches 


3 Inches 


4 Inches 


5 Inches 


6 Inches 


Fall 
Ft. in Ft. 


e © 


!l 

s a 

on o 


+3 

If 

IS 

O '^ 


II 

Ja 


.«3 

e-iS 

M 

C t- 




© o 

© -tJ 

O u 
« c. 


If 

05 © 
j5r? 


.1^ 
© © 

ii 

C U 

1- 


_5 a 
© -*^ 

■T. © 
-^ © 


© -iJ 

II 

5 t, 
« a 


"© ..J 

00 © 

1— >i— t 


lin 20 


273 


5.46 


297 


8.91 


335 


13.40 


390 


32.40 


432 


58.32 


480 


93.60 


lin 25 


246 


4.92 


273 


8.19 


300 


12.00 


345 


28.64 


387 


52.25 


4.50 


87.75 


lin 30 


220 


4.40 


249 


7.49 


270 


10.80 


312 


25.89 


351 


47.39 


390 


77 . 65 


1 in 35 


204 


4.08 


228 


6.84 


250 


10.00 


288 


23.80 j324 


43.74 


360 


70.20 


lin 40 


192 


3.84 


216 


6.48 


237 


9.48 


272 


22.68 


306 


41.31 


330 


64.35 


lin 45 


180 


3.60 


201 


6.03 


222 


8.88 


255 


21.16 


288 


38.88 


315 


61.42 


lin 50 


174 


3.48 


192 


5.76 


210 


8.40 


243 


20.17 


272 


36.72 


300 


58.50 


lin 60 


153 


3.06 


174 


5.22 


190 


7.60 


216 


17.93 


245 


33.07 


270 


52.65 


lin 70 


144 


2.88 


162 


4.86 


177 


7.08 


204 


16.93 


229 


30.91 


252 


49.14 


lin 80 


135 


2.70 


150 


4.50 


165 


6.60 


198 


16.43 


210 


28.35 


214 


45 63 


lin 90 


129 


2.50 


144 


4.32 


156 


6.24 


180 


14.94 


201 


27.13 


222 


43.29 


lin 100 


120 


2.40 


135 


4.05 


150 


6.00 


170 


14.11 


192 


25.92 


210 


41 . 16 


Diam. 


71 


nches 


8 Inches 


9 Inches 


10 Inches 


11 Inches 


12 


[nches 




1 
o 


c 




i— 1 o 


J, 


5 






1 


5 




© 
2 = 


lin 20 


510 


135.15 


540 


189 


573 


252 


620 


335 


690 


455 


750 


5&5 


lin 25 


480 


127.20 


480 


168 


510 


224 


540 


292 


570 


376 


600 


468 


lin 30 


438 


116.07 


450 


158 


471 


207 


510 


275 


520 


343 


.540 


420 


1 in 35 


390 


103.35 


408 


143 


441 


194 


456 


246 


480 


316 


510 


397 


1 in 40 


363 


96.19 


390 


137 


411 


180 


432 


233 


450 


297 


480 


374 


1 in 45 


342 


90.63 


360 


126 


390 


172 


405 


218 


430 


283 


450 


351 


1 in 50 


327 


86.65 


:345 


120 


363 


160 


390 


210 


410 


270 


420 


327 


lin 60 


288 


76.32 


309 


108 


330 


145 


345 


186 


360 


238 


390 


304 


1 in 70 


270 


71.55 


280 


98 


306 


135 


324 


175 


340 


224 


360 


28() 


lin 80 


252 


66.78 


270 


94 


294 


123 


309 


167 


325 


214 


3.30 


257 


lin 90 


240 


63.60 


258 


90 


273 


120 


285 


154 


300 


198 


315 


245 


1 in 100 


221 


58.50 


245 


86 


258 


114 


270 


146 


288 


190 


300 


234 



Note — To determine discharge in U. S. gallons multiply cubic feet by 7.5. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 33 

Example — What size of drain will be required in Kansas City to drain a 
roof and other impervious surfaces, 50 X ^^^ f^et, with the drain laid at a 
grade to produce a velocity of about 270 feet per minute? 

Solution — Area to be drained, 10,000 square feet X maximum rate of 
precipitation, .65 foot per hour == 6,500 cubic feet per hour ^ 108 cubic feet 
per minute. From Table X is found that an 8-inch pipe laid at a grade of 
1 lo 60 will discharge 108 cubic feet of water per minute, at a velocity of 309 
feet per minute. As this rate of flow is well within the permissible range of 
velocity, an 8-inch pipe may be used if laid at a grade of 1 to 60. 

Determining the Size of House Drains. — A house 
drain must carry off the greatest amount of storm water 
likely to be discharged into it, without filling and running 
the danger of overflowing. If there are no openings in the 
cellar, however, smaller pipes will carry off the water, for 
the moment a hydraulic head begins to build up, it will be 
converted into velocity head, thereby increasing the 
capacity of the pipe proportionately. 

The size of house drains in systems from which rain 
water is excluded is determined by the number of inmates 
in the building and the per capita consumption of water. 
It is obvious that the amount of sewage flowing through a 
house drain cannot exceed the amount of water used in the 
building, therefore the house drain need only be large 
enough to carry off the greatest probable amount of water 
that will be used at any hour of the day. 

The per capita consumption of water in many of the 
New York State hospitals average at present from 150 to 
200 gallons of water daily. In the principal cities through- 
out the United States the per capita daily consumption of 
water varies from 36 to 300 gallons, with an average from 
all the cities of 121 gallons. On the whole, it would seem 
that a per capita allowance of 100 gallons daily would be 
sufficient, and at the same time not too much. A study of 
Table XI shows that in but few cities does the per capita 
supply fall much below 100 gallons daily, and in those cities 
that do, all of which are manufacturing cities, it is reason- 
able to suppose that a large percentage of the people do not 
have elaborate toilet facilities. In the large cities, on the 
other hand, where from 150 to 300 gallons of water per 
capita are used daily, allowance must be made for water 



34 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

used for fire purposes, street sprinkling, flushing of sewers, 
etc., which would bring the average consumption of water 
within buildings for domestic purposes down to about 100 
gallons per day. Of this 100 gallons, not over 25 per cent, 
will be used during any one hour of the day, and that prob- 
ably will be used at the hour that people arise. It will be 
used as follows : 

Water closets 6 gallons 

Preparation of meals, etc 2 gallons 

Laving 2 gallons 

Bathing 22 gallons i 

Scattered 22 gallons 



Total 25 gall 



ons 



Fifty-five gallons per hour equals .416 of a gallon per 
minute; therefore, to find the amount of water to be 
removed by a house drain under the foregoing conditions, 
multiply the number of inmates the building is designed to 
accommodate by .416 of a gallon, and the product will be the 
quantity of water or sewage in U. S. gallons to be removed 
per minute. The size of pipe required to take care of this 
amount can then be found in Table X or by the formula : 

f] __ 234 "4/ ~' ^" ^vhich d ^ diameter of pipe in feet, q r= cubic feet of sewage 
delivered per second, h = head in feet, 1 = length of pipe in feet. 

Example — ^What size house drain will be required in a hotel built to 
accommodate 300 guests and servants, the daily per capita allowance of water 
being 100 gallons, and the drain to be laid at a grade to produce a velocity of 
about 270 feet per minute? 

Solution — 300 X -416 =: 124.8 gallons, or ' = 16.6 cubic feet of sewage 

7.5 
per minute to be disposed of. From Table X it is found that a 4-inch pipe, 
when laid at a grade of 1 to 40. will discharge about 22.68 cubic feet of water 
per minute. 

The size of house drains in buildings is sometimes 
determined by the following empirical rule: 

Rule — Alloiv one square inch in sectional area of the 
drain for each tivo cubic feet, or fifteen U. S. gallons of 
seivage to be removed per minute. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



35 



TABLE XI. Per ( apita Consumption of Water 

ri';i{ CAl'ITA I>.\II>V n.XTKK ( ONSl MI'TION IN Till'; I II TV I-AIUiKST 

CITIKS Ol" TlIK IMTKI* STATKS. AKKAN<;KI) IN OKDKK 

OF rOFlLATION. 



C'itu's 



1 . New York , . 

2. Chicago 

8. Philaddrhia 

4. Brook Ivn 

o. St. Louis 

fi. Boston 

7. Baltimore . . 

8. San Frandsco 
0. Cincinnati . . 

10. Cleveland ... 

11. ButTalo 

12. New Orleans 

13. Pittslmrfih .. 

14. Wasliington. . 

15. Detroit 

16. Milwaukee... 

17. Newark 

18. Minneajiolis. . 
1?) . Jersey City . . 
2f). Louisville 

21. Omaha 

22. Rochester. , 

23. St. Paul .. .. 

24. Kansas City 

25. Providence 
20. Denver 

27. Indiana]-)()lis 

28. Alleshenv 
20. AlV)any 

30. Columbus . 

31. Syracuse 

32 . Worcester . . . 
33-. Toledo 

34. Hichniond. . 

35. New Haven. . 
30. Paterson 

37. Lo^^ell 

38. Nashville 

39. Scranton 

40. Fall River. . 

41. Cambridge... 

42. Atlanta.. 

43. Memphis 

44. W ilmii)gt()ii . 

45. Davton 

46. Troy 

47. (Irand Rapids 

48. Reading 

49 . Camden 

50. Trenton 



IVr Cnpita 


Incn*:is<^ or Drcrojisc 




Consiiinption 


in ("()nsumi)li(>n 


in Ciallons 


ill 'i'cii Yciirs in (.inllons 


1S«K) 


I'.UH) 


Incr. 


Deer. 


70 


116 


37 






140 


100 


50 






132 


220 


07 






7'> 




















72 


150 


87 






80 


143 


()3 






04 


07 


3 






61 


73 


12 






112 


121 


7 






103 


150 


5() 






186 


233 


47 






37 


48 


11 






144 


231 


87 






158 


185 


27 






161 


146 




15 


110 


80 




30 


76 


04 


18 




75 


03 


18 






97 


160 


63 






74 


100 


26 






04 


176 


82 






66 


83 


17 






60 


67 


7 






71 


62 









48 


54 
300 


6 






71 


79 


8 






250 


101 








78 


230 


152 






68 


102 


34 






50 


70 


11 






72 


110 


37 






167 


100 




67 




135 


150 


15 






128 


120 


1 






66 


85 


10 






146 


140 




6 




29 


36 


7 






64 


70 


15 






36 


84 


48 






124 


125 


1 






113 


f«) 




23 




47 


62 


15 






125 


183 
156 


58 






to 


02 


17 




131 


2S0 


140 




62 


00.9 


37 





36 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



Example— What size pipe will be required to remove 108 cubic feet of 
water per minute when the drain is laid at a grade to produce a velocity of 
about 270 feet per minute? 

Solution— 108 ^ 2 = 54 square inches area, and from Table XIV it will 
be seen that a pipe of about 8^/4 inches diameter has the required area. An 
8-inch pipe, therefore, would be used. 

It is often desirable to know the capacity of drains' 
when running half full. Having the velocity of flow under 
such condition, the capacity can easily be determined. 

The velocity of flow in drains or pipes running partly 
full can be found by the formula : 



=V- 



-2d, in which V = velocity in feet per second, a == area of water in 



square feet, p = wetted perimeter in feet, 2d = twice the slope in feet per 

mile. 

Example — What is the velocity of flow in a 6-inch drain laid at a grade 
of 1/4 inch per foot when running half full? 

Solution — There is a 110-foot fall in a mile of drain laid at a grade of 
74 inch per foot. Then 
7098" 



X 220 = 5.3 feet per second. Answer. 



M .75 

In Table XII will be found the areas of roof or other 
quick-run-off surface that can be drained into house drains 
or leaders of various standard sizes of pipe, laid at grades 
of l^ inch and 1/2 inch to the foot. 

TABLE XII. Size of House Drains for Roof Drainage 



Diameter of Pipe, 


Fall, 






Fall, 


Inches 


Ji inch to the foot 


}4 iu^^li to the foot 


3 


1,200 square 


feet 


1,500 square feet 


4 


2,500 






3,200 




a 


4,500 






6,000 




6 


8,000 






10,000 




7 


12,400 






15,600 




8 


18,000 






22,500 




9 


25,000 






31,500 




10 


41,000 






59,000 




12 


69,000 






98,000 





Drainage of Storm Water. — The rainfall on imperv- 
ious surfaces reaches the sewer as fast as it falls. A differ- 
ent condition obtains, however, when the rain falls on earth. 



H 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



S7 



Then the amount of storm water to be carried off, and the 
size of drains for the purpose, will depend upon the rate of 
precipitation per hour; pitch or slope of the area to be 
drained; area of the drainage surface; and the quantity or 
proportion of the rainfall that will reach the sewer in a 
given time. According to Table IX, the greatest rate of 
downpour is 2.55 inches per hour, and the average is 1.75 
inches per hour. 

TABLE XIII. Carrying Capacity of Sewer Pipe 







GALLONS DISCHARGED PER MINUTE 




h 

'■X. 




2i 


•—1 O 

e«3 a 


42 

If 

CO a 


■4J 

—1 <^ 

-SO 
1 <^ 

o a 


-4J 


1 o 

<N a 


— . 4) 
^O 

CO a 


3 


9 


12 


15 


22 


27 


31 


44 


54 


4 


20 


28 


35 


50 


62 


71 


101 


124 


G 


63 


89 


111 


156 


194 


224 


317 


389 


S 


140 


198 


246 


348 


432 


499 


706 


864 


i) 


196 


277 


339 


480 


595 


687 


971 


1180 


10 


261 


369 


457 


648 


803 


928 


1310 


1610 


12 


432 


612 


758 


1070 


1330 


1530 


2170 


2660 


15 


800 


1130 


1400 


1980 


2450 


2830 


4010 


4910 


18 


1320 


1860 


2310 


3260 


4040 


4660 


6590 


8080 


20 


1720 


2500 


3060 


4330 


5305 


6130 


8660 


10610 


24 


2910 


4110 


5035 


7191 


8810 


10270 


14520 


17790 


27 


4020 


5680 


6960 


9840 


12050 


13920 


19680 


24110 


.30 


5380 


7618 


9320 


13180 


16140 


18640 


26350 


32280 


33 


6950 


9840 


12050 


17040 


20865 


24090 


34070 


41730 


36 


8800 


124.50 


1.5210 


21565 


26410 


30500 


43130 


52820 



Experience shows that, owing to various causes, such as 
evaporation, porosity of soil, obstructions, and absorption, 
only from 50% to 75% of the rainfall will reach the drain 
within an hour. Severe storms are of brief duration, so if 
provision is made to carry off the hourly rainfall, that will 
be sufficient. Where the rainfall exceeds 2 inches per hour, 
the rate of precipitation for that period can be multiplied 
by the area to be drained, and 50% to 75% of that amount 
allowed to reach the sewer. Ordinarily, however, an allow- 



S8 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

ance of 1 inch per hour will be sufficient, assuming that the 
entire 1 inch of rainfall reaches the, sewer in an hour. 

One inch rainfall per hour is equal to 3,630 cubic feet, 
or 27,225 gallons of water to be removed per hour from each 
acre of surface. 

When the area to be drained, and the fall of sewer per 
hundred feet are known, the size of pipe required can be 
found in Table XIII, wliich gives the capacities of large 
sewer pipes when running full. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 39 

CHAPTER V 
DETAILS OF THE HOUSE DRAIN 



Fresh Air Inlets 

Definition. — A fresh air inlet is a pipe connected to 
the main house drain inside of the main drain trap, and 
extending to a point outside of the building where it is open 
to the atmosphere. Its object is to admit fresh air to circu- 
late through the drainage system to keep the air within 
comparatively pure; also to act as a relief pipe to prevent 
compression of air within the system when a heavy flush of 
water, in descending, fills the pipe full bore, or when a 
strong gust of wind blows down the vent stacks from above 
the roof. If a passage for the escape of air were not pro- 
vided for such occasions the compression of air in the drain 
pipes would force drain air through the seal of some of the 
traps. It is quite evident from the function of a fresh air 
inlet that any form of check valve or inlet fitting that pre- 
vents air escaping from the mouth of the pipe during heavy 
discharges or ''blow backs" should not be used. 

Connection to House Drain. — The fresh air inlet 
should connect to the house drain by means of a T branch. 
It should never connect to the clean-out opening of a trap. 
In cold climates, such as the northern part of the United 
States and Canada, the fresh air inlet should be connected 
to the main drain from 5 to 15 feet inside of the main drain 
trap. If connected to the main drain near the trap the 
rapid circulation of cold air through the system will, in 
winter weather, freeze the water in the trap. 

Location of Outlet. — The mouth of a fresh air inlet 
should be located at least 12 feet from all windows, doors, 
ventilator shafts or flues communicating with a building, 
and the end should be so protected that it cannot be 
obstructed by children or choked with dirt, water, snow, 
leaves or ice. In some of the large cities the fresh air inlet 
opens into the side of a box located at the curb, and is pro- 



40 



PHnciples and Practice of Plujnbing 



tected by a removable metal grating. When so located, the 
bottom of the box should extend at least 18 inches below 
the bottom of the pipe to prevent the mouth of the fresh 
air inlet becoming choked with dirt. The principal objec- 
tions to this form of inlet are, first, the box is seldom, if 
ever, cleaned, and in the course of time fills up with dirt; 
second, during winter weather the grating becomes com- 
pletely choked with snow and ice. 

In detached houses the fresh air inlet generally is ex- 
tended 15 or 20 feet away from the building, and the end 
protected with a return bend that opens facing the ground. 
When this form of inlet is used, it is good practice to locate 
the inlet in a clump of bushes or some other place equally 
inaccessible to children. 

When sufficient space can be found in the foundation 
wall of a building, near the main drain trap and far enough 
from all openings to 
the house, the fresh 
air inlet can be lo- 
cated there, and the 
inlet protected by a 
metal strainer a, 
Fig. 19, secured to 
the stone work. This 
makes a very supe- 
rior form of inlet. 
In fresh air inlet grates the openings should equal in area 
the size of the fresh air inlet pipe, and the size of the open- 
ing in the grate should be not less than one-half inch in 
their least dimension. 

Size of Fresh Air Inlets. — Fresh air inlets should 
be the full size of the house drain for all sizes of drains up 
to 4 inches in diameter. A 4-inch fresh air inlet is large 
enough for a house drain 8 inches in diameter. For larger 
house drains the fresh air inlet may be one-half the diameter 
of the house drain. 

It might be well to emphasize here that a fresh air 
inlet is absolutely unnecessary unless there is a main drain 
trap in the house drain; and, as the main drain trap is 




Fig. 19 
Fresh Air Inlet 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 41 

objectionable, it should be used only in those cases where 
antiquated plumbing codes require it. The fresh air inlet, 
therefore, is to be used not because it is good or necessary, 
but because the law demands it. 

Rain Leaders 

Kinds of Leaders. — Rain leaders may be divided into 
inside leaders and outside leaders. Inside Leaders are 
located within some parts of the building secure from frost, 
and are installed by the plumber. They are made of cast 
iron or wrought iron pipe and put together perfectly gas 
and water-tight. Outside Leaders are usually made of 
sheet metal with loose slip joints, and from a point about 
5 feet above grade, are installed by the sheet metal worker. 
Up to a point a few feet above grade outside leaders should 
be of cast iron or wrought iron pipe to withstand the 
rough usage they are likely to receive. 

Trapping of Leaders. — Rain leaders usually are trap- 
ped with a running trap placed in the horizontal part of 
the leader just inside the cellar wall, secure from frost. 
When inside leaders are used, however, or when outside 
leaders are made perfectly gas and water-tight and do not 
open near windows, doors, flues or ventilator shafts, a 
better practice is to omit the trap and use the leader also 
for a vent pipe. 

Roof Connections. — Inside rain leaders should have 
special roof boxes properly flashed to the roof, and should 
preferably be connected to the roof gutter by means of a 
lead, brass or copper oftset, or a short length of brass or 
copper pipe of about No. 20 Stub's gauge corrugated to 
make it flexible and collapsible, as shown in Fig. 20, to 
take up the creeping of the line due to expansion and con- 
traction. Lead pipe may likewise be used for this purpose 
if it is made flexible and collapsible. If of lead, the pipe 
should weigh not less than 6 pounds per lineal foot for 
4-inch pipe; 8 pounds for 5-inch pipe, and 10 pounds for 
6-inch pipe. The flexible fitting must be securely soldered 
to the gutter, and flanged to the under side so that any 



42 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



creeping of the line will not affect the joint at the roof. 
The other end of the fitting should be calked or screwed 
into the iron pipe by means of solder nipples or brass fer- 
rules solder wiped to the lead pipe or made part of the 
brass pipe. The Holt roof connection, also the Josam are 
good types of leader heads that have proven serviceable in 
use. Roofs that are surrounded with parapet walls should 
have scuppers or overflows built in them through which 
water can escape in case the leader inlet is obstructed 
with ice. 

Inside leaders should be so located and installed that 
in case the inlet is clogged with ice or otherwise obstructed 
the rain water can over- 
flow through a scupper to 
the ground or to another 
roof surface. If, for in- 
stance, a leader were locat- 
ed at the center of a square 
building having a flat roof, 
and the inlet became clog- 
ged, the water would be 
retained on the roof form- 
ing a pool of dangerous 
weight. In industrial build- 
ings of the saw-tooth type, 
it is bad practice to run 
horizontal leader mains 
under the roof, taking 
branches up to the several 

gutters. In this location the pipe becomes heated to the 
temperature of the hottest part of the room, then quickly 
chilled from a cold rain. Lead-calked joints are liable to 
work looae under such temperature changes, so if the lead- 
ers must be installed that way, they had better be of screw 
pipe. 

Outside leaders should be provided on the top with a 
service box, into which the roof water can discharge. This 
service box should be set low enough so in case the leader 
becomes stopped with ice, the water can overflow the box 







f/an^e Jb/nf. 

^Corru^ef//b/7J fo /"a/ft 
nas" of 

Fiji-. 20 
Flexible Connection for Roof Gutter 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 43 

without backing up on the roof. The principal objection 
to outside leaders is that they freeze and burst. In cold 
climates outside leaders are a source of worry and expense 
that can be avoided by the additional first cost of inside 
leaders. The bursting of outside leaders from frost can be 
reduced to the minimum by using corrugated pipe in place 
of cylindrical; then, when the water expands upon freezing, 
the corrugations yield to the pressure without the pipes 
bursting. Cast iron pipe with lead calked joints never 
should be used for soil waste or leader pipes where exposed 
to frost. Even though the pipe is usually empty, the oakum 
used in calking the joints becomes wet from the water flow- 
ing through the pipe, which, upon freezing, forces the lead 
out of the joints, causing leaks. 

Size of Leaders. — The Barrett Company, from their 
extensive experience in roofing, advances the following two 
paragraphs and Table XV: 

For large roof areas (more than 4,000 square feet) it 
is considered the best practice to drain to different points, 
using smaller leaders, rather than to one outlet of large 
size, although in some cases the arrangement of leader-lines 
makes the latter arrangement compulsory. 

A reliable table not always being available, an easy and 
reliable formula to use is to allow : for roofs covered with 
gravel or slag with an incline not exceeding one-quarter of 
an inch per foot, 300 square feet of roof surface to each 
square inch of leader opening; for roofs of greater incline, 
or saw-tooth roof construction, 250 square feet roof surface 
to each square inch of leader opening ; for metal, tile, brick, 
slate or similar roofs of any incline, 200 square feet of roof 
surface to each square inch of leader opening. Table XV 
can be depended upon in estimating roof drainage, it being 
based on the heaviest storm conditions recorded. 

Rule — Allow 1 square inch in sectional area of the 
leader for each 250 square feet of saw-tooth roof surface. 

ExAMPi^E — What size of leader will he refiiiircd lo drain a rord 75 iVrt long 
hy 50 feet wide? 

Solution — r= 15 .S(iiiare Indies, and Ikuii TuMc \I\ it is found 

250 

that a 4^2-inch pipe has an area slightly greater than 15 inches. 



44 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



The area in square inches and in square feet of pipes 
from 2 inches to 12 inches in diameter can be found in 
Table XIV. 

TABLE XIV. Diameter and Areas of Pipes 



Diameter of 

pipes in 

inches 

Areas of pipes 

in sq. inches 
Areas of pipes 

in sq. feet . . . 



2 


2H 


3 


4 


4H 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


3.14 


4.9 


7.06 


12.57 


15.9 


19.63 


28.27 


38.48 


50,25 


63.61 


78.54 


.02 


.03 


.04 


.083 


.11 


.135 


.195 


.265 


.35 


.44 


.54 



12 
113.1 

.785 



Expansion and Contraction of Leaders. — The varia- 
tions in length of leaders due to change in temperature has 
always been more or less of a problem, but it becomes a 
serious one to take care of the expansion and contraction in 
tall office buildings. Take a building 400 feet tall, for in- 
stance. In such a building while the pipes are at a uni- 
form temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit or more, a cold 
rain or snow comes on, and water at a temperature of about 
35 degrees Fahrenheit chills the pipe in a few minutes 
through a range of at least 35 degrees. If the change of 

TABLE XV. Size of Leaders 





SIZE OF LEADER, INCHES 




2y2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


8 


Roofs covered with 
gravel, slag or other 
similar material with 
incline M" to 1ft.... 


1800 


1800 

to 

2200 


2200 

to 

3600 


3600 

to 

5600 


5600 

to 

8000 


8000 
to 
14000 


Same with incHne 3^" 
to 1 ft. or more and 
saw-tooth roofs 


1200 


1200 

to 

1700 


1700 

to 

3100 


3100 

to 

4900 


4900 

to 

7000 


7000 

to 

12000 


Metal, tile brick, slate 
or similar roofs of 
any incline 


1000 


1000 

to 

1400 


1400 

to 

2500 


2500 

to 

3900 


3900 

to 

5600 


5600 




to 
10000 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 46 

temperature came on gradually so the molecules of the rain 
leaders could have time to adjust themselves slowly to the 
varying length, the destructive force would not be so 
serious ; but, the sudden changes coupled with the numerous 
changes which take place during the year, requires that 
special precautions be taken to avoid damage. In a build- 
ing 400 feet tall with this variation of temperature in a cast 
iron rain leader, it would contract or expand approximately 
1/^ inch, while a wrought pipe would change even more in 
length. To compensate for this variation in length, col- 
lapsible or flexible fittings or expansion joints of some kind 
should be used. 

Yard and Area Di-ains 

Yard and area drains in a sense are rain leaders. Their 
object is to remove storm water from yard and area sur- 
faces ; therefore, what has been written about the size and 
materials of rain leaders will apply equally to yard and 
area drains. 

Yard and Area Catch Basins. — A yard or area drain 
is shown in Fig. 21. This is simply a plain cast-iron re- 
ceptacle with removable perforated cover. It is located in 
the yard or area to be drained, so the rain water can drain 
into it and pass thence through a pipe connection to the 
main house drain. Catch basins should be so constructed 
that all water will drain out of them immediately, and the 
area of perforations in the covers should be at least equal 
to twice the area of the drain pipe. 

Trapping Yard and Area Drains. — Yard and area 
drains should be trapped with running traps located inside 
of the foundation walls where they are accessible and safe 
from frost. When convenient to do so they should connect 
to a rain leader. If the rain leader is trapped the yard or 
area drain should connect to it on the yard side of the trap, 
and the leader trap will then serve for both. The objects 
of connecting a yard or area drain to a rain leader are to 
insure a permanent seal to the trap, or in the event of the 
seal failing, to provide a draft, down through the area drain 
and up through the rain leader. 



46 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

While it is better not to trap rain leaders when ihey 
are gas and water tight, and do not open near windows, 
doors, or other inlets to the buildings, it is never advisable 
to install yard or area drains unless they are well trapped 
with a good running trap, preferably of deep seal, and 
placed where the water will not likely be evaporated from 
the seal. Yard and area drains are generally placed in such 
locations that drain air would blow through them in case 
they were untrapped, and the drain air would either be 
inhaled by those working or otherwise occupied in the yard, 
or the drain air might find its way into the building through 
a near-by door or window. Yard and area drains should 
never be placed in a position or location where they cannot 
be supplied with water at frequent intervals whenever it 
rains. 

Gasoline and Oil Separators. — Closely allied with 
yard and area drains are garage 
drains. Too great care cannot be 
exercised to keep from entering 
the main sewers the gasoline drip- 
pings from motor cars, and the oils 
used in cleaning and lubricating. 
Disastrous explosions, tearing up 
the street for miles, and doing mil- 
lions of dollars worth of damage Fig. 21 
have been caused by the ignition ^^"^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^"^^^ 
of an explosive mixture of gasoline vapor and air. Illum- 
inating gas is another source of danger when it escapes 
from the gas mains and enters the street sewers. 

Oil separators should be installed in public and other 
large garages, to trap out the oil and gasoline. They are 
nothing more or less than large grease traps, which are 
connected to a system of piping independent of the main 
system. They have their own main-drain trap and fresh- 
air inlet ; a 2-inch vent pipe from tank to roof ; a system of 
piping which takes the waste from all floor drains and 
carriage washes where oils and gasoline are used; and a 
main vent stack of the full size of the oil system drain, 
extending through the roof. 




Principles aiid Practice of Plumbing 47 

CHAPTER VI 
SIPHONS AND SIPHONAGE 



Description of Siphon and Siphonage. — There is no 
apparatus or no force having so many uses and functions 
in plumbing practice as the siphon. Most of the apparatus 
used in plumbing are operated by means of siphons ; on 
the other hand, siphonage causes more trouble than any- 
thing else. It is siphonage which destroys the seals of 
traps when not properly ventilated, and the same invisible 
force which causes range boilers to collapse. 

A siphon can be seen in Fig. 22, which shows one of the 
simplest forms. It is nothing more or less than a bent tube 
or pipe, made in the form of a letter U, but having legs of 
unequal length. That is the prime characteristic of a 
siphon of any kind, to have legs of unequal length, for if 
both legs were of the same length it would not be a siphon, 
and would not operate as one. 

The operation of the siphon is simple. If the short leg 
of the empty tube were immersed in a pail of water, as 
shown in the illustration, water would rise in the short leg 
to the level of the water in the pail, and that is all. The 
water would not run out of the vessel through the bent tube. 
If before placing the short leg of the siphon in the water, 
however, the tube be filled with water, then as soon as the 
tube is in the position shown in the illustration water will 
commence to flow through it and will continue to flow until 
the water in the bucket has been lowered to the mouth of the 
short leg. Air will then pass into the pipe and break the 
siphonage. It will be observed that in flowing from the 
pail through the siphon, the water is carried some distance 
above the level of the water in the pail. That is another 
feature of the siphon to be kept in mind, for it will raise 
water to a level higher than the source before discharging 
it, but will never discharge the water at a higher level than 
the source. On the contrary, the long leg of the siphon 
must be turned down, and the outlet must be at a lower level 



48 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



than the surface of the water in the pail, or the siphon will 
not work. 

The pressure of the atmosphere is bearing down on the 
surface of the water in the pail with an intensity of 14.7 
pounds to the square inch, assuming that it is at sea level. 
This pressure is transmitted to the mouth of the short leg 
of the siphon, so that there is an upward pressure of 14.7 
pounds to the square inch tending to drive the water up into 
the short leg. But the pressure is bearing upward at the 
mouth of the long leg with equal intensity, so that the air 
pressure at the inlet just balances or offsets that at the out- 
let, thereby leaving the water in the siphon as though not 
acted upon by the pressure of the air at all. 

Whatever motive force there is, then, must be due to 
the difference in length of the two col- 
umns of water, one in the short up leg 
immersed in the pail of water and the 
other the long down leg outside the pail. 
If we assume, therefore, that there is 
a distance of one foot between the sur- 
face of water in the pail and the top of 
the siphon, and that the long leg of the 
siphon is five feet in length, then one 
foot in length of the long leg would off- 
set or counterbalance the foot of lift in 
the short leg, leaving a difference at the beginning of the 
operation between the long leg and the short leg of a col- 
umn of water four feet high. This unequal weight of water 
would, of course, cause the four feet of water to run out of 
the long leg ; but that would tend to create a vacuum in the 
down leg at a point level with the water in the pail. How- 
ever, as Nature abhors a vacuum, instead of one being 
formed, the pressure of air on the surface of the water in 
the pail forces more water in to fill the space, and so a con- 
tinuous flow is established. 

Effect of Air Leakage on a Siphon. — To operate 
successfully, a siphon must be perfectly tight. Even a little 
pinhole at the top of the siphon will let in air enough to 
break the continuity of flow and stop the siphonage. Water, 




Fig. 22 
Simple Siphon 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 49 

and nothing but water, or the liquid that is being siphoned, 
must be in the siphon. In large, permanent siphons, through 
which water is flowing continuously, there is a tendency 
for air to accumulate at the top of the siphon and break its 
action. This air comes from the water itself. Water has 
a certain capacity for air, and at atmospheric pressure and 
ordinary temperature will absorb about 4 per cent. In- 
creasing the pressure or low^ering the temperature will 
increase its capacity to absorb air, while decreasing the 
pressure or increasing the temperature will lower its 
capacity for air. The water at the top of a long siphon is 
at an appreciably lower pressure than at the intake, and 
chances are the temperature is slightly raised, too, particu- 
larly if the pipe is exposed to the sun. 

The result w'ould be that the capacity of the water to 
absorb air or hold it in solu- 
tion would be lowered, and 
some w^ould be liberated as 
free air to collect at the top 
of the siphon. This is a 
trouble frequently encount- 
ered in hilly or mountain- Fig. 23 

OUS countries where a siphon ^'^^^^ Maintaining Level of Liquid 

^ in Two Vessels 

line is used to draw water 

from a lake or stream over a low hill into a valley on the 
other side. Air keeps accumulating at the top of the 
siphon and has to be let out occasionally or the siphonage 
will be broken and the siphon will have to be started all 
over again. In pipe lines of such description air vents are 
provided at the highest points, so that the air can be per- 
mitted to escape without at the same time breaking the 
siphon. 

Siphon for Equalizing Water Levels. — Another 
form of siphon is shown in Fig. 23. This form of appa- 
ratus, instead of siphoning water from one level to a lower 
one, transfers the w^ater from one vessel to another one at 
the same elevation, and maintains the water in both vessels 
at a common level. The siphon is turned up at both ends 
where it is immersed in the water, to prevent air from 



50 Ptinciples and Practice of Plumbing 

entering and displacing the water, and the siphon, of course, 
at all times while in use is full of water, or of the liquid to 
be transferred. If water is now poured into one of these 
vessels, it will immediately commence to flow through the 
siphon into the other vessel, and will continue to flow so 
long as there is a difference in level between the surfaces 
of the water in the two vessels. This simple form of siphon 
proves more conclusively than any other form that the flow 
is caused by a difference in head of water in the two legs, 
and that back of it all it is the pressure of the atmosphere 
which causes the siphon to operate. In a perfect vacuum 
there would be no such thing as siphonage, because there 
would be no pressure to force the liquid up into the short 
leg of the siphon. 

As the operation of a siphon is dependent upon the 
pressure of the atmosphere, it is in some respects like the 
operation of a pump which owes its action to the exhausting 
of air from the suction pipe, which is then filled with water 
by the pressure on the water in the well or other source of 
supply. Like the pump suction, too, there is a limit to the 
height that water can be raised by siphonage. At sea level 
the theoretical height that a siphon can raise cold water is 
33.95 feet. As a matter of fact, however, in practice it is 
doubtful if the water could be raised a greater height than 
25 feet, and even that would be an extreme lift. Twenty 
to twenty-two feet would probably be more nearly the lift 
of a siphon under usual working conditions. 

Application of Siphonage to a Fixture Trap. — In 
Fig. 24 is shown another form of siphon. This does not 
differ so much from the first one shown, outside of the fact 
that instead of lifting the water over the top edge of the 
vessel it takes it out of the side near the bottom, then turns 
upward to near the top of the vessel, or higher according 
to the use to which it is to be put, then forms the well- 
known U-shaped tube which is the distinguishing feature of 
the common siphon. The resemblance here to a common 
siphon trap is shown by means of dotted lines. If instead 
of the vessel of water the part of the tube shown by dotted 
lines be supplied, we have a trap such as is used under 



Principle fi cwd Practice of Plumbing 



51 




Fig. 24 
Half S Siphon 



plumbing fixtures, and the reason it can be siphoned be- 
comes apparent. When the long leg of the siphon becomes 
filled with water, it will draw the water out of the dip of 
the trap until the water line is lowered enough to allow air 
to fiow in and break the siphonage, just as it would if in- 
stead of a trap, it were a common 
j ; vessel that the siphon w-as attach- 

ed to. 

The principle of ventilation of 
fixture traps can be clearly under- 
stood by referring to Fig. 25. As 
was previously pointed out, the least 
little pin hole at the crown of the 
siphon, or in the long leg of the 
siphon, above the bottom of the short 
leg, will permit enough air to enter 
the pipe to destroy the siphonic ac- 
tion. That fact is taken advantage 
of to protect traps from being siphoned in plumbing sys- 
tems. If, for instance, a pet-cock were placed in the crown 
of a trap, as shown in the illustration, when the cock is 
closed the trap would form a true siphon; but the moment 
it is opened, or a hole left in the top of the trap, siphonic 
action would be broken and the water seal 
in the trap would remain intact. So far j = 

as preventing the loss of seal of the trap is 
concerned, then, a short piece of pipe a 
few inches long soldered to the crowm of 
the trap and open at the top is all that 
would be required. But with a short pipe 
like that there would be two unsanitary 
conditions. In the first place, in case of a 
stoppage water might rise high enough in 
the system to overflow from the pipe and 
ilood the building. In the second place, it would defeat the 
very object aimed to prevent. Almost everything in the 
trapping of fixtures is a compromise — not the ideal. Fix- 
tures would be better off connected up with a straight piece 
of pipe, only in that case the sewer gas would flow through 




Fij,'. L'.'. 
Vriit fdi- Siplion 



52 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

into the building. As a remedy, the trap is used as a com- 
promise. But the trap itself is liable to lose its seal by 
siphonage if provision is not made to protect it. If, then, 
we compromise again by connecting only a short piece of 
pipe open at the end, siphonage will be prevented, but the 
vent pipe will be open to the free discharge of sewer gas, 
the very thing the trap is intended to prevent. The only 
way to solve the problem is to extend the vent pipe from 
each trap up to and through the roof, and there let it open 
to the atmosphere. But again we compromise. If each 
individual vent pipe from a trap were extended through the 
roof, the cost would be excessive and the building would be 
cut up with pipes more than is necessary. To keep down 
the cost, then, and protect the building, a main vent stock 
is run up through the roof, and all the vent branches from 
near-by traps are connected to this stack. The ventilating 
of traps it will be seen, then, is a simple thing. Any num- 
ber of branch vents can be connected to one stack, the only 
requirement being that the stack be proportioned to the 
number of branch vents; and, no mistake can be made in 
running the branch vents to the stack, for all that is neces- 
sary is to see that the branches are large enough, all kept 
high enough, and have a fall from the vent stack towards 
the fixture traps so any water finding its way in will find 
its way to the v/aste pipe and not remain in the vent pipe to 
form a trap. Viewed in this light the system of vents and 
re-vents becomes simple, for it is merely running a main 
stack like the trunk of a tree, and taking off branches of 
the required size at the right floors, like the limbs of the 
tree. 

A different type of siphon used for a flushing device 
in a water closet tank is illustrated in Fig. 26. This siphon 
is formed by means of a cup-shaped member inverted over 
a straight piece of pipe. The space between the cup-shaped 
piece and the straight pipe forms the up leg of the siphon, 
or what is commonly called the short leg, while the long leg 
is represented by the flush pipe. 

The operation of this siphon is as follows : The tank 
and space between the inner tube and outer cup-shaped 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



53 



casing of the siphon are filled with water to the level shown 
in the illustration, but the inner tube of the siphon and the 
flush pipe are empty. When the chain is now pulled, the 
valve a is raised from its seat, and water flows in, filling the 
flush pipe. The long leg of the siphon is now charged, the 
chain is released and the valve settles back on its seat. But 
the flow of water down the flush pipe now tends to create a 
vacuum in the space marked b, so pressure of the atmos- 
phere on the face of the water forces water over into the 
tube, and the siphon continues until the tank is empty. 
Usually a small hole near the bottom of the outer casing is 
provided to gradually break the siphonic action when the 




Fig. 26 
Siphon Applied to Closet Tank 

water lowers enough to uncover the hole and allow air to 
enter. 

Application of Siphons to Closets. — Most of the 
closets made today, and all of the better types, including 
siphon-jet closets, siphon-action hoppers and reverse-trap 
siphon action closets, are simply siphons and operated by 
siphonage. The principle of siphonic action applied to 
closets is shown in Fig. 27. The short leg of the siphon is 
shown at a and extends from the trap inlet to the crown of 
the bend, while the descending leg b forms the long leg of 
the siphon. It will be noticed that the outlet passage in- 
stead of being straight is more or less tortuous. This is to 



54 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



dash the water from one side to the other in order to make 
the minimum amount of water fill the bore or rarefy the 
air and start siphonic action. In the siphon jet the opera- 
tion of the siphon is aided by a jet of water c, which, shoot- 
ing up the short leg of the siphon, has a heaving effect 
which quickly puts over enough water to start the siphon in 
operation. In siphon-action closets the ordinary flow of 
water from the flushing rims, by raising the water level, 
causes an overflow and starts the siphon. 

Generally speaking, the siphon is of great benefit in 
plumbing, although there are conditions under which it be- 
comes an agency of destruction. Range boilers, for instance, 

are sometimes col- 
lapsed when the 
water from within 
is siphoned out. 
Suppose, for exam- 
ple, a 40 gallon 
range boiler is con- 
nected up on the 
first floor of a build- 
ing on the side of a 
hill. The supply 
pipe from the water 
main is then the 
long leg of the 
siphon, and the boiler tube inside of the boiler the short leg 
of the siphon. Now, if the water be shut off from the street 
main, and the pipe emptied, the siphon is set in operation, 
the boiler is partly emptied, and unless air gains entrance 
some how to equalize the pressure on both sides of the 
boiler, the tank will collapse. 

An ordinary range boiler of 40 gallons capacity is five 
feet high by 14 inches in diameter. If we do not count the 
heads but just include the sides of the cyhnder, we will find 
that there are about 18 square feet of surface to the tank. 
Each square foot of surface contains 144 square inches, or 
the boiler contains 2592 square inches all told. On each 
square inch of surface the atmosphere is bearing down with 




Fig. 27 
Siphon Applied to Closet 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 55 

a pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch ; and 2592 square 
inches times 14.7 pounds per square inch equals 88,102 
pounds, or over 19 tons pressure. This pressure must be 
equalized by a similar pressure inside the boiler, or the 
boiler will collapse from the weight of the atmosphere, as 
frequently happens when boilers which are not properly 
protected have their contents partly siphoned out by shut- 
ting off the supply of water, then opening a faucet at a much 
lower level. 

The siphon, then, is a most useful contrivance in both 
plumbing practice and engineering work. It is only in ex- 
ceptional cases that it operates against instead of in favor 
of useful effort. It is used for conducting water over low 
ranges of hills into valleys where the water will be needed. 
It is used to operate most of the closets used in present-day 
practice. It operates many of the closet tanks now^ in use, 
and is the principle upon which many automatic apparatus 
operate ; while on the other hand, in only two cases is it of 
detriment to the plumber, and in those two cases the possi- 
bility of damage can be avoided, if the plumber is familiar 
with the siphon, with siphonage, their uses and limitations. 
Those two cases are the possibility of traps siphoning when 
not properly installed, and the companion possibility of 
range boilers collapsing if not protected against the forma- 
tion of a partial vacuum. 



56 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER VII 
SOIL, WASTE AND VENT SYSTEMS 



Stacks and Branches 

Definitions. — Soil stacks are those pipes which receive 
the discharge from water closets and urinals, although they 
may also receive the discharge from other fixtures. They 
connect with the house drain in the cellar or basement, and 
extend to a suitable point above the roof. 

Soil pipes are the branches which connect closets or 
urinals with soil stacks. 

Waste stacks receive the discharge from fixtures other 
than w^ater closets or urinals. They also connect with the 
house drain and extend to a suitable point above the roof. 

Waste pipes are those which connect any fixtures other 
than water closets or urinals with either a waste stack or a 
soil stack. 

A vent stack is a special ventilating pipe that connects 
with a soil or waste stack below the lowest fixture and 
extends to a point above the highest fixture, where it may 
again connect with the stack or extend separately through 
the roof. No soil or waste matter discharges into this pipe. 
Its function is to provide a supply of air to the outlets of 
fixture traps, to prevent the water seal being broken either 
by siphonage or by back pressure. Those portions of soil 
and waste stacks above the highest fixtures may be consid= 
ered as vent stacks. 

A vent pipe is a short branch extending from the vent 
stack to the trap it ventilates. 

Two-Pipe System of Plumbing.— There are three sys- 
tems of roughing in for stacks and branches in use at the 
present time; they are known as the two-pipe system, the 
single pipe system and the loop or continuous vent system. 
In the two-pipe system, siphon traps are used, and their 
seals are protected from siphonage by a system of vent 
pipes. The principles of installation of the two-pipe sys- 
tem are shown in Fig. 28. In this system a vent stack 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



57 




Fig. 28 
Two-Pipe Sj'stem of Plumbinfr 



58 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

intersects the soil stack at an angle of 45 degrees at a point 
below where the lowest fixture discharges into the soil stack. 
The object of connecting the soil and vent stacks together at 
this point is to provide an outlet from the vent stack into the 
soil stack for rust scales or other foreign matter which 
might enter it. In the illustration the vent stack rejoins 
the soil stack at a point above the level of the highest fixture 
discharging into it. This connection is made only for eco- 
nomic reasons, however. The vent stack may be extended 
separately through the roof, and in buildings over six sto- 
ries in height it is better to do so. On stacks three or more 
stories in height the waste pipe from the wash basin and 
bath tub on the first floor is generally connected to the heel 
of the vent stack to wash out any foreign matter that might 
lodge there. This provision, however, is of more impor- 
tance in wrought iron systems than in cast iron systems, 
owing to the greater possibility of wrought iron stacks 
being stopped at this point by rust scales. Connections to 
vent stacks are made at a point above the level of the outlet 
from the highest fixture in the group ; and all the vent pipes 
drain toward their respective traps so that water of con- 
densation or sewage that backs up in the vent pipes, during 
stoppage of the waste pipe, will drain out again when the 
waste pipe is clear. Should the connection to the vent stack 
be made at a level lower than the outlet from the fixtures, 
the waste pipe might become stopped up and the fixture 
would waste through the vent pipe without the stoppage 
becoming known. The principles and practice of the two- 
pipe system are fully explained in the foregoing description. 
More fixtures may be connected to a stack or more stacks 
may be installed in a building, but they are only a multi- 
plication of units of which this illustration is an exam.ple. 

One-Pipe System of Plumbing. — In Fig. 29 is shown, 
diagramatically, the one-pipe system of plumbing. This 
illustration should be compared with the illustration of a 
two-pipe system, to see w^herein they differ. In the one- 
pipe system non-siphon traps are used without vent pipes. 
This method of piping reduces the cost of roughing to almost 
one-half the cost of the two-pipe system, and necessitates 



Privciplefi a}i(l Practice of Plinvhitif/ 



59 




)iif IMpo System uf I'liiinltiii! 



60 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

less cutting of walls and floors. For some purposes, for 
instance, where clear water only will be used, and in small 
installations the one-pipe system, with approved non-siphon 
traps, may be equal to the two-pipe system. It is open, how^- 
ever, to the objection that a slight gurgling noise might be 
heard in the waste pipes due to siphonic action of the trap 
when a fixture is flushed. The illustration shows the waste 
from the lavatory discharging into the bath-tub waste. A 
better way is to connect the lavatories separately to the 
stacks in the fittings shown at the two lower floors. When 
that is done, non-siphon traps need not be used. Ordinary 
siphon traps will answ^er as well. The one-pipe system of 
plumbing can often be used without resorting to non-siphon 
or refill traps. Ordinary siphon traps, which are not only 
the best, but generally speaking the cheapest, being used. 
Some examples of the one-pipe system of plumbing with 
siphon traps are given in a later chapter. 

Loop or Continuous Vent System. — The loop or con- 
tinuous vent system of plumbing is shown, diagramatically, 
in Fig. 30. The fixtures instead of being separately vented 
as in the case of the two-pipe system of plumbing, are 
simply connected to a horizontal soil pipe with a continuous 
loop extending to the vent stack and connecting to it above 
the top of the highest fixtures in the group. This system 
is more suitable for water closets than for other fixtures, for 
the reason that the types of closets now used are siphon act- 
ing, with refill provision made, so that after the closets are 
flushed the traps fill automatically. With small fixtures on 
the other hand, to extend their waste pipes down to the 
horizontal soil pipe would constitute long legs with which to 
siphon all water out of the traps. A battery of lavatories, 
however, can be connected up this way to a waste pipe 
directly back of them, by means of half S traps. 

It will be observed that the horizontal pipe is perfectly 
rigid, there being no possibility of it yielding when the floor 
joists dry out and shrink. There ought, therefore, to be some 
provision made to take up the shrinkage of the joists, other- 
wise the closets will be held above the floor a distance equal 
to the shrinkage, or some part of the system, probably the 



Principles lUdl Practice of Plumbing 61 



■=■ 



^ 



( -? 




J J J ,' L ^ 



( .1 




•vSo// ^fack 



-. J 




y , , ) 



C" "■' 



J J 




2 2 



:^ ; 




^ 5 




riiSl 



), ,1 



2 





o 


. 1' . 


\l 



C .1 



C 




1^ i5r 



— i i<i i S 



ir 



nn 



a 



Ke/7/ J/^dT/f 



^ F/ex/h/e \ 
Conr?ec//o. 



L 



NM 1 ns rj 



2 2 



S ; 



TS FT 






H 



01 



lir_0=:ili: 



a 



C/eanoot/- ' 



Fig. 30 
Continuous Vent or Loop System 



62 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

closet or closet connections, will be racked out of position so 
they will leak, or be broken. 

The question often arises, which is the best system of 
plumbing to adopt in a city code. It may be stated that 
there is no one system so superior to the others under all 
conditions that it can be used or recommended to the exclu- 
sion of the others. The only way when designing work is 
to blend them all together, using for certain stacks those 
systems which will give- the best results at the least cost. 
In a large installation it is possible that all three methods 
might be used in different parts of the work. 

It is results that are wanted, and the best method for 
that particular purpose should be used regardless of the 
name or reputation of the system. No system, it might be 
added, is peculiar to itself, but they are all blended together 
by modifications, as will be seen in the examples of systems, 
so that it is hard to tell to what system some installations 
belong. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 63 

CHAPTER VIII 
EXAMPLES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 



ROUGHING-IN FOR SINGLE Bath ROOMS. — The drainage 
system for a cottage or small building of any kind is a com- 
paratively simple matter in designing and in which there 
is but little danger of going astray. In large office build- 
ings, hotels, institutions or buildings of like character, par- 
ticularly when many stories high, there is grave danger of 
having trouble with the soil and vent stacks if they are not 
properly proportioned and installed. With the view of mak- 
ing the subject as simple as possible, a number of illustra- 
tions are here presented, as types of roughing-in. 

Fig. 31 shows how the work can be roughed-in for the 
bathroom fixtures when the closet is between the bath tub 
and the lavatory with the least possible amount of pipe, 
without resorting to back venting, and so no waste pipe will 
show in the rooms except where they extend from fixture to 
wall or floor. While no back vents or loop vents are used 
in this system the work is perfectly sanitary and ordinary 
siphon traps may be used without danger of siphonage. It 
will be noticed that both the waste to the bath tub, and to 
the lavatory are taken from the soil pipe at a higher level 
than the closet outlet, consequently they cannot be siphoned 
by the discharge of the closet, which gets a plentiful supply 
of air from the stack. On the other hand, the closet cannot 
be siphoned by discharge from the other fixtures because 
they discharge into so large a pipe they can set up no 
siphonic action. 

It will be well to note the sizes of pipe used in such an 
installation. The soil stack need be only 3 inches in 
diameter, likewise the closet bend will be only 3 inches in 
diameter, which is sufficiently large to care for the discharge 
of any closet, for closet outlets vary from VYi inches to 3 
inches in diameter, and average about 2^1, inches diameter. 

The manner of roughing-in for these fixtures when the 
lavatory is between the water closet and the bath tub, is 



64 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



shown in Fig. 32, which is simply a variation of the arrange- 
ment shown in Fig. 31. It does not matter how the fixtures 
are arranged on the plan, they can be re-arranged or the soil 
stack can be so located that some modification of these sys- 
tems of roughing-in can be used. Further, two bathrooms 
on opposite sides of the partition can be roughed-in exactly 
like these, duplicating the branches but not the stack. 




Fig. 31 
Simplified Roughing for Bath Room 



Distance Fixture Can Be from Stack. — Of course 
there is a limit to the distance a fixture can be located from 
the soil stack without venting when the foregoing methods 
of roughing-in are used, and this limit is set by the limita- 
tions of the trap itself. This will be understood by refer- 
ring to Fig. 33, which shows an ordinary siphon trap 
attached to a piece of pipe. It will be noticed that the 
distance from the top of the pipe to a level line a-b is marked 
3 inches, which represents a depth of seal in the trap of IV2 
inches, and the inside bore of the trap, which is II/2 inches, 
making a total of 3 inches in all. Now the trap for a fix- 
ture can be set at such a distance from the stack that the 
waste pipe will not have more than 3 inches fall. With a 
fall of 3 inches, as shown in the illustration, the long leg of 
the trap of siphon is just on a line with the line a-b; any 
further dip would make the connection a true siphon and 
draw the water out of the trap every time the fixture was 



PriHciph'}^ inid Practice of PUinihhiy 



65 



discharged. As a matter of fact, the top of the pipe should 
never be carried down clear to the bottom line in practice, 
for the seal in the trap is then so nicely balanced that it is 
easily siphoned. The total distance the waste pipe from an 
ordinary IVo-inch siphon trap can ''fall" is 3Vi inches, and 
2V2 inches is the extreme amount that should be allowed in 
practice. 




Fig. 32 
Simi>litie(l lioughing for Single Bath Room 



With a possible fall of 2V2 inches, the distance the trap 
can be located from the stack will depend on the fall per 
foot allowed, and the fall per foot will depend on the loca- 
tion of the pipe. For example, the waste pipe to the lava- 
tory could be run at a pitch of V2 i^ch per foot, or even less, 
so that five, six, or even seven feet at a pinch could be 
reached. When the pipe is run under the floor in wooden 
joist construction, on the other hand, there is another limit- 
ing factor. Twelve-inch joists, the size commonly used in 
i-esidence work, shrink upon seasoning or drying, about i/o 
inch. On this account, whenever a waste pipe is run under 
a wooden Moor, it should have a fall of at least -Vi. inch, no 
matter how short it may be. Suppose for instance, the 
waste pipe is only 1 foot long, and has a fall of -W inch. 
Then, when the shrinkage takes place and the weight of the 
tub has pressed down the waste pipe, it will still have |4 
inch out of the original % inch fall. Waste pipes laid under 



66 



Principles and Practice of Plitmbing 



the floor should then have a fall of I/2 i^^ch to the foot, with 
an extra I/2 i^^ch allowance for the entire line. Allowing, 
then, 1 inch for the first foot, and 1/2 inch for each succeed- 
ing foot of waste pipe under a floor, and a total available 
fall of 21/2 inches, the greatest distance from the stack a 
trap could be located would be 4 feet, although it might be 
stretched to 7 feet when necessary. 





CO 

HS /- /Lor?^ Legr of ■S/phon. 




1 


"'^'^^S/^ar/ Leq of •3//?/) 0/7. 


...^ 


. 







Fig. 33 
L<^ngth of Siplion Trap that oau be used 

The objection might be raised that five to eight feet is 
too much pipe to go unvented. Ventilation, however, is but 
a compromise, a safety device which is unnecessary in this 
case. Diffusion from the soil stack will keep the pipe free 
from strong gases, and every time the fixtures are flushed 
the pipes will be scoured and the air expelled. It will be 
safe to assume, therefore, that 8 feet of IV2 inch waste pipe 
can be run to a fixture that wastes to the wall without being 
vented, or 5 feet to a bath tub or other fixture that wastes 
through the floor. 

ROUGHING-IN FOR BaTH ROOMS ON TWO FLOORS. — The 
simple method of roughing-in for single bath rooms outlined 
in preceding paragraphs is shown in Fig. 34 applied to two 
bath rooms located on two floors, one above the other. It 
will be noticed that 3 inch soil pipes are being used, and are 
found sufficiently large. The layout is the same as ex- 
plained for the single bath room except that two pipes are 
here run, and one bath room discharges into one of the verti- 
cal pipes, while the other bath room fixtures discharge into 
the other line of pipe. 

This same layout could be used for four bath rooms, 
two on each floor, and on diflerent sides of the partition in 
which the stacks are run. In that case, all that would be 
necessary would be to increase the size of stacks to 4 inches 
diameter, and use double pipe fittings where single TY 
fittings are now shown. 



Priffciplrr. (DirJ Practice of Phnifhifitf 



67 




I'i-. :;{ 

Siiiiplilicd riiiiiibiiij;. Two I'limr.- 



68 



Prijiciples and Practice of Plumhiny 



ROUGHIXG-IN FOR LAVATORIES. — When two lavatories 
or similar fixtures on one floor are located on opposite sides 
of a partition., and there are no other fixtures above that 
floor, they can be cheaply, neatly and properly connected ^s 
shown in Fig. 35. By this method of installation no pipes 
are exposed outside of the partitions and each trap is efi^ec- 
tively ventilated. It should be borne in mind, however, 
that a sanitary cross or double TY fitting, as shown in the 
illustration, must be used with this method of installation. 
If a double Y fitting, as shown by dotted lines at a, were 
used instead, the waste pipes b from the traps would form 
long legs of siphons that would empty the trap at each dis- 
charge from the fixture. 

When lavatories or other fixtures on two tioors are 
located on opposite sides of a partition, they can be properly 

and economically connected 
as shown in Fig. 36. In 
this method of installation, 
separate waste stacks are 
run to the fixtures on the 
different floors, and the 
stacks continued up to the 
roof to serve as vent pipes. 
It is simply applying the 
principles of Fig. 35 to fix- 
tures on opposite sides of 
partitions on two floors. In 
Fig. 37 fixtures are located 
on opposite sides of a par- 
tition on three or more 
. floors. It would be too 
cumbersome and expensive to carry separate stacks to each 
floor as is done in Fig. 36, so a soil stack and vent stack are 
run. and between the walls of the partition, at the inter- 
mediate floors, the vent stack is connected to the waste stack 
and a sanitary cross in the connecting branches used on the 
same principle as in Fig. 37. On the first floor both fixture 
wastes are connected direct to the vent stack. This is to 
simplify the construction and wash out of the vent stack any 




a, Rs 
I 



Fig. 3-J 
Kousrliiuff-in for Double Lavatory 



Principles and Practice of Phimhing 



69 



rust scales or other foreign matter that might lodge there. 
On the top floor both fixture wastes are direct connected to 
the waste stack. This makes a perfectly sanitary connec- 
tion and simplifies the construction. All of the examples of 
roughing illustrated possess the additional advantage of 
liaving concealed in the partition all waste and vent pipes 
except the short lengths of waste pipe from the fixture traps 
to the wall; furthermore, when the waste pipe to the fixtures 
is extended back through the wall, it leaves the floor space 
beneath the fixtures free from pipes. 

Examples of Rough- 
ing IN Tall Building. — 
The examples of roughing- 
in for fixtures heretofore 
given were for small or 
medium sized installations, 
where simplicity and eco- 
nomy were the keynotes. 
It must be remembered, 
however, that different 
rules and principles must 
be observed in roughing-in 
for fixtures in small build- 
ings, than will be required 
for skyscrapers. In tall 
buildings the sewage must 
fall such a distance from 
the top floors that it will 
have a tremendous velocity 
and the sewage traveling 
at this high speed will not 
only compress the air be- 
fore it, but will entrain air, 
carrying it along in its 
wake, thereby creating a 
partial vacuum back of the 
large discharges. 

To provide for such 
conditions, two principles ,. ,. , ,>■ '^'■."" .,> ,,, 




70 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



must be observed. In small work the waste pipes are made 
smaller than usual, the rule being to proportion them to the 
volume of sewage they must carry, so they will be self- 
cleaning, and dispense with vent pipes to as great an extent 
as possible. In tall buildings, on the other hand, where on 
account of the high velocity in the vertical soil stacks, from 

a capacity standpoint the 
pipes could be reduced to 
very small dimensions as a 
matter of fact they must 
be made larger than for 
corresponding number of 
fixtures in low buildings, 
and vent pipes must be 
plentifully provided, to 
keep equalized the pressure 
of air in all parts of the 
stack, even when the great- 
est number of fixtures are 
discharging simultaneously. 
It must be borne in mind 
that the depth of seal in 
traps is not over 1% inches 
of water, which is equal to 
a pressure of one ounce per 
square inch ; and if the seal 
is allowed to be upset, 
either by pressure or by 
vacuum, drain air will flow 
into the building, or there 
will be a gurgling noise. 

To prevent such a pos- 
sibility, the system should 
be so proportioned that at 
no time will there be a 
greater pressure or vacuum 
than that equal to one inch 
Fig. 37 of water within the pipes, 

Roughing for Fixtures on Three which WOUld be equal tO 

or More Floors 




Pri)friples and Pyacticc of Pluynbimj 



71 



.579 ounce pressure per square inch. This will necessitate 
much larger pipes than would be required merely to conduct 
the volume of sewage flowing through the system. 




SiMrks ,'iml (."oiHHN-l ions in TmII r.iiildin: 



72 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

The roughing-in for a tier of toilet rooms one above 
another in a tall building is shown in Fig. 38. This work 
is installed according to the two-pipe system, and it will be 
observed that the heaved up air in front of a downward 
flush of water can escape at each floor through the system 
of back venting, thereby preventing any great pressure 
inside of the soil pipe, while air is supplied not only from 
the top of the soil stack above the roof, but likewise from 
the back vent pipes and vent stack at each floor of the 
building, as the water descends. 

This ventilation of the system is a very necessary pro- 
vision in all tall buildings, and any economy in that regard 
will meet with failure. If vents were not provided in the 
work shown in the illustration, the pressure on the inside of 
the stack would force air bubbles out of traps of fixtures at 
the lower floors, and the air would carry water into the fix- 
tures, and in some cases to the floor. 

In Fig. 39 is shown an extreme case, but one which 
frequently occurs in practice, however. A large battery of 
closets on the top two or three floors of a tall building, then 
several floors without any fixtures, but a few scattered fix- 
tures lower down in the building. It will be noticed that 
there are several floors where no outlets for fixtures are 
taken from the soil stack. Now then, if no relief was pro- 
vided, the downward rush of water when most of the fix- 
tures on the top floors were flushed would create sufficient 
pressure within the pipe to force water out of the traps on 
the lower floors. To prevent such a possibility, it is well 
to provide relief pipes at the floors where there are no 
fixtures, the relief pipes being not less than 3 inches in 
diameter, and connecting together the soil and vent stacks, 
but in such a manner that sewage cannot flow into the vent 
stack. It is not absolutely necessary to have these relief 
pipes at every floor of the building where there are no fix- 
tures, but they should not be more than three floors apart 
at most, while two would be better, and each floor would 
do no harm. 

Size of Soil and Waste Stacks. — Under ordinary 
conditions, in small buildings, soil or waste stacks need not 



P}'hici))l('s and Practice of PUituhing 



73 



be larger in diameter than the hirgest branch discharging 
into them. However, in the case of large buildings many 
stories in height and with many fixtures connecting to a 

Poof 




f 



Relief P/pe 



6fh. r/oor 



f 



Re/ief Pipe 



5fh. F/oor 



f 



Re//'ef P/pe 



4-fh. F/oor 



f 



Pe/Zef P//ye 



3//?. F/oor 




rijr. n!> 
Kflirf l»i|ics ill Tull I'.nild iiijrs 

stack, the size should be determined by some rule or formula 
based on the use to which the stack is to be put, and the 
volume of water it must care for. 



74 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

There is a principle underlying the proportioning of 
soil stacks the same as for proportioning other pipes 
through which liquids or gases flow, but in seeking for this 
formula the function of the vent stack must not be con- 
fused with that of the soil stack, and the effort made to have 
one pipe serve the purpose of both. The soil stack must be 
large enough to safely care for the largest flush of water it 
will ever receive, while, as previously pointed out, the vent 
stacks and relief pipes must take care of the supply of air, 
and maintain an equal pressure of not more than one inch 
of water throughout the system. In the devising of a 
formula for soil stacks, experimental data should be the 
basis, the same as it is in all other branches of hydraulics 
and penumatics, and in the formula, a sufficient factor of 
safety should be allowed, so the stacks will perform their 
functions under the severest conditions. 

In the present state of the art, the practice, in some 
cases, is to make the soil stacks as large, or nearly as large, 
as the main house drain, basing the sizes of stacks on guess- 
work. That stacks proportioned in that way are unneces- 
sarily large will be apparent on little reflection. The house 
drain is proportioned to carry off all the water discharged 
into it from all sources, rain leaders included, assuming 
that the entire flow will reach a certain point about the same 
time vdthout intervals between flushes. Further, it is pro- 
portioned to carry off this quantity of fluid when the velocity 
in the drain is not greater than 6 feet per second, and the 
average velocity 41/2 feet per second. That is the velocity 
due to the pitch or fall of the pipes. 

It would seem that the method of proportioning the 
main house drain would be equally applicable to the stacks 
of soil and waste pipe, and that if they are made of sufficient 
capacity to care for the maximum discharge, they will al- 
ways be well flushed without danger of being overtaxed. 
It is not likely that such a condition will ever obtain in any 
plumbing system, of the entire quantity of fluid allowed for 
reaching a certain point in the stack at one time. So rapid 
is the descent of water in vertical stacks that a start of but 
a fraction of a second will suffice to separate the various 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 75 

flushes, and even if the efTort were made, it would be almost 
impossible to so time the various flushes that they would 
all meet so as to form a solid plug of water in the pipe. 
Assuming, however, that they did, the increased hydraulic 
head would instantly be converted into velocity head and 
the entire column would flow away with greater rapidity, 
thus increasing the capacity of the pipe. 

In proportioning a vertical stack, a velocity would have 
to be assumed. In the house drain, we take the velocity 
due to the pitch or fall of the pipe. In the vertical stacks, 
we might take part of the velocity due to gravity when 
matter falls through the air. For example, matter in fall- 
ing through a pipe travels with an accelerating velocity of 
about 32 feet per second. If, however, we ignore the accel- 
eration and assume that sewage in a pipe falls with a uni- 
form velocity of 32 feet per second, less the frictional 
resistance due to the walls of the pipe, and allow 12 feet of 
velocity for friction head, we will have a velocity of 20 feet 
per second in our vertical stacks. This would seem to be 
a safe velocity to assume for, as factors of safety we would 
have not only the acceleration due to gravity but also the 
hydraulic head, if the bore of the pipe should ever become 
full, forming a solid plug of water. 

Accepting 20 feet per second, then, as the velocity of 
flow down the vertical stacks of soil and waste pipe, and 
assuming a maximum flow of 25 per cent, of the greatest 
quantity of water which can be discharged per second into 
a stack from all the fixtures with which it is connected, then 
proportioning the stack to take care of that quantity of 
fluid, the pipes would be of suflRcient diameter to properly 
fulfill their functions. 

In the case of buildings 25 stories and more in height, 
it might be advisable to allow for more than 25 per cent. 
of the fixtures being used at one and the same time. Not 
that there is likely to be, but owing to the pressure the 
descending water might cause in the heaved up air ahead 
of it, an extra allowance of space would do no harm. How- 
ever, if the vent stacks are properly proportioned, they will 
take care of all pressure, and a 25 per cent, allowance will 



76 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

be sufficient. It is well to bear in mind, however, that this 
rule, like all rules and formulas, must be used with judg- 
ment, the system of venting used having much to do with 
the result. 

Of course, there must be a minimum size of pipe, noth- 
ing smaller than which should be used. Experiment, no 
doubt, will develop the fact that 2i/2-inch pipe is the smallest 
that can be used, and will be suitable only for small, one 
bath room residences ; but in the absence of experimental 
data, experience must be the guide. At the present time, 
numerous installations of 3-inch soil pipe, which have been 
in successful operation for years, point to the fact that soil 
pipes of this diameter are large enough for private houses 
and for vertical stacks in many other buildings. New York 
City, for instance, allows four water closets to discharge 
into a 3-inch soil pipe. 

For the purpose of checking the 20-foot per second 
velocity method, assume a building five stories high, with 
toilet rooms on each floor, each toilet room containing 10 
closets. Twenty-five per cent, of the closets are supposed 
to discharge 1.83 gallons of water each per second, and at 
such intervals that the waters will come together to form 
a solid core in the pipe. On that assumption the stack 
would have to care for 1.33 gallons X % of 50 closets, = 
16.62 gallons of water per second. A 41/2-inch pipe will 
care for 16.52 gallons of water per second at a velocity of 
20 feet per second, while a 5-inch pipe will care for 20.77 
gallons per second. It will be seen that the 41/2-inch pipe 
is slightly under the requirement, while the 5-inch pipe is 
slightly above what is actually needed, and allows an addi- 
tional margin of safety. As a rule, therefore, it is better 
to use the large pipe having the full capacity required, 
although in some cases a 41/2-inch vertical stack of soil pipe 
would be sufficiently large for this purpose. In tall office 
buildings 30 to 50 stories in height, it can be assumed that 
about one-third to one-half of the closets will be discharged 
at once. 

It will be found safe to assume that only 25 per cent, 
of the fixtures In ordinary buildings, and 33 to 50 per cent. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 77 

in extremely tall buildings are discharged at the right 
moment for the water to intermingle and form a solid plug 
in the soil stack, for it is doubtful if over 20 per cent, of 
the closets will ever be operated so as to bring about this 
result, and even if more than 25 per cent, happened to coin- 
cide in that manner, as was previously pointed out, there 
would still be a sufficient margin of safety to take care of 
the extra water. It would seem, therefore, that proportion- 
ing soil and waste stacks according to this method would 
prove perfectly safe and eminently satisfactory, at all events 
until such time as experimental data will furnish more 
definite information upon which to base a better method 
or devise a more accurate formula. 

Size of Vent Stacks. — The practice of making vent 
stacks only one size smaller in diameter than the correspond- 
ing soil or vent stack is a sound one, which will give good 
results in a system of any size. In medium size buildings, 
smaller stacks may be used, but in extremely tall buildings, 
forty, fifty and sixty stories in height, the inlet is so far 
away from the fixtures on the lower tioors, the friction is so 
great, and the necessity for maintaining a low pressure of 
not over 1 inch of water so important, that larger vent 
stacks are called for. There is no economy in making the 
vent stacks small, for, in proportion as the size of the vent 
stacks are decreased, the soil or vent stack must be made 
larger to compensate for the lack of capacity in the vent 
stack. It is doubtful if in medium size buildings the same 
principle would not hold true, and that by making the vent 
stacks large the soil stacks may be smaller. At all events, 
when the method of proportioning soil and vent stacks 
given in the preceding article is followed, the vent stack to 
accompany the soil stack must be only one size less in 
diameter. 

Vent stacks should never be smaller than 2 inches in 
diameter. When the accompanying soil or waste stack is 
4 inches or larger in diameter and the building low, accord- 
ing to current practice, the vent stack need have an area of 
only one-fourth (a diameter of one-half) that of the soil or 
waste pipe. The reason vent stacks, under such conditions, 



78 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



can be smaller than soil or waste stacks is that air flows 
more than four times as readily as water, hence, enough 
air can flow in a vent pipe of given size to prevent a vacuum 
forming in a soil or waste pipe of four times its capacity. 
In tall buildings, however, it is not only prevention of 
siphonage, but what is far more serious, the prevention of 
pressure from the descending water which must be guarded 
against, therefore, large vent stacks are necessary. The 
proper size of vent stack to accompany any size soil or 
waste stacks can be found in Table XVI. 



TABLE XVI. Size of Vent Stacks 



Diameter of soil or waste 
stack in inches 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Diameter of vent stack 
inches, low building . . 


2 


2 


21 


2H 


3 


3H 


4 


4>^ 


5 


6 


6 


Diameter of vent stack in 
inches, taU builrling. . . 


2 


23^ 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 



Size of Soil and Waste Pipes. — Soil and waste pipes 
should always be the full size of the waste outlets from 
fixtures. The outlets should be sufficiently large to permit 
the fixtures being emptied quickly so as to thoroughly flush 
the waste pipes, and the waste outlets should be unobstruct- 
ed by strainers, cross-bars or other devices that will catch 
fibrous materials or obstruct the flow of water. Formerly 
water closet outlets were made 4 inches in diameter and soil 
pipes were made correspondingly large ; however, the manu- 
facture of closets has undergone a change both as to types 
and sizes, and water closets are now made with traps 
seldom over 3 inches, and usually only 21/2 inches in 
diameter. In consequence of this change in the size of 
closet traps, soil pipes need now be made only 3 inches in 
diameter, and soil stacks in ordinary cottage buildings may 
be made the same size. A distinct advantage gained by 
this reduction in size of closet traps and soil pipes is that 
soil stacks in small buildings can more easily be concealed in 
partitions now than formerly when 4-inch pipes were used. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



79 



Size of Vent Pipes. — For traps 3 inches and more in 
diameter vent pipes 2 inches in diameter are used ; for 2-inch 
trap, a li/o-inch vent pipe is used, and for any trap smaller 
than 2 inches in diameter the vent pipe should be the full 
size of the trap, to reduce the possibility of stoppage should 
the waste pipe become choked and sewage back up in the 
vent pipes. 

From experience and experiment the sizes of soil, waste 
and vent pipes shown in Table XVII are derived. 

TABLE XVII. Sizes of Soil, Waste and Vent Pipes 



Kind of Fixture 


Diam. of 

Soil ofjWaete 

Pipe in Inches 


Diam. of 
Vent Pipe 
in Inches 


A\'ater closets 

Bath tubs 


3 

iy2 

V/2 

2 to 3 
lHto2 

1^ 

Wi 


2 
W2 


Lavatories 

Bidets 

Shower hatha 

Sitz baths 


W2 
W2 

W2 


Slop sinks 

Ivitchen or pantry sinks 

Laundry trays 


13^ to 2 


Urinals. . . 


1^ 


Drinking fountains 







Waste pipes from fixtures to the stack should have as 
much fall as can be conveniently given; owing to their small 
diameters and the proportionally large amount of frictional 
resistance they offer to the flow of sewage they cannot be 
given too much pitch. 

Expansion of Soil and Waste Stacks. — When soil 
and waste stacks are installed in high buildings, local condi- 
tions might be such that allowance should be made for ex- 
pansion and contraction; under ordinary conditions, how- 
ever, in buildings of moderate height no special provision 
need be made for expansion; the spring of wrought-iron 
pipe and soft lead joints to cast-iron pipe compensating for 
any variation of length due to temperature. As a matter 
of fact, the range of temperature during the year should 
not vary 40 degrees Fahr. It is doubtful if it would vary 
half that much, but assuming a variation of temperature 



80 Principles and Practice of Pliunhing 

during the year of 40 degrees Fahr., the expansion of a 
wrought iron pipe in a building 50 feet high Avould be less 
than three-sixteenths inch. The vertical parts of a build- 
ing, however, are subject to very much the same range of 
temperature as the pipes, and the entire building will 
expand correspondingly with the pipes, so that relatively 
there is little or no expansion to be considered. 

Settlement and Shrinkage of Buildings. — While 
special provision need seldom be made for expansion and 
contraction of soil stacks in low buildings, some provision 
should be made to allow for settlement of a building and 
shrinkage of the floor joists without damage to the fixtures 
or to the drainage system. Pipes should be kept free from 
structural beams and connections to stacks should be made 
Avith swing, expansion, or flexible joints to allow for settle- 
ment and shrinkage. 

The amount of settlement and shrinkage in buildings, 
and the damage resulting therefrom, seem to be little under- 
stood or not fully realized in plumbing practice, although 
the breakage of re-vents from closet traps above the floor 
which made them abandon the back-vent from the horn of 
porcelain closets, ought to have taught the lesson well. 

There are three distinct movements which take place 
in all buildings. They are, shrinkage of the floor joists; 
settlement of the building, and movement caused by expan- 
sion and contraction. For instance, all tall and heavy build- 
ings erected on other than bed-rock, settle from three to 
five inches, due to the compressibility of the soil. Evidence 
of this subsidence of buildings can be seen in the cracks 
which appear in walls, floors, ceilings and tiling of most 
buildings, showing unmistakably that some movement has 
taken place since the building was erected. 

If the subsidence of buildings constituting the greater 
part of the business portion of the city of Chicago continues, 
that city will have not one but scores of leaning towers. 
The Building Department there declares that virtually all 
of the immense buildings and sky-scrapers of the downtown 
district are "out of plumb and lean out far over the plumb- 
line." 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 81 

The Great Northern Hotel is partially carried on jacks, 
as are a number of other buildings, which, periodically, as 
they settle, are jacked up. When the buildings will settle 
no further, the walls will be filled in with masonry and the 
jacks removed. 

It is probably safe to say that every tall building in 
the city leans more or less, and if they are on floating 
foundations they also settle gradually. That is, there are 
two destructive movements in the subsidence of tall build- 
ings carried on floating foundations. In the first place, 
they gradually lean from the plumb, due to wind-pressure 
or other forces acting upon them, and this whether carried 
on floating foundation or built on solid bed rock; in the 
second place, when on floating foundations, they settle, due 
to their weight. 

But there is still another movement of tall buildings 
not yet mentioned, and this new^ movement cannot be better 
described than by quoting the following article : 

'*If one remembers that an inch, although a good deal 
on a man's nose, is very little in a hundred feet, one will 
not be surprised to learn that all high structures sway in 
the air. The Eiflfel Tower swings perceptibly with the 
wind, and even stone shafts like those of Bunker Hill and 
Washington Monuments move several inches at the top. 
In these cases the cause of the action is not only the wind, 
but the heat of the sun. The side that is towards the sun 
expands during the day, more than the side in shadow. An 
interesting device has been employed to show the movement 
of the dome of the Capitol at Washington. A wire was 
hung from the middle of the dome inside the building, down 
to the floor of the rotunda, and on the lower end of the wire 
was hung a 25-lb. plumb-bob. In the lower point of the 
plumb-bob was inserted a lead pencil, the point of which 
just touched the floor. A large sheet of paper was spread 
out beneath it. As the dome moved, it dragged the pencil 
over the paper every day. The mark made was in the 
form of an ellipse six inches long. The dome would start 
moving in the morning as soon as the rays of the sun began 
to act upon it; and slowly, as the day advanced, the pencil 



82 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

would be dragged in a curve across the paper until sun- 
down, when a reaction would take place and the pencil 
would move back again to its starting point. But it would 
not go back over its own penciled tracks, for the cool air of 
night would cause the dome to contract as much on the one 
side as the sun had made it expand, and so the pencil would 
form the other half of the ellipse, getting back to the 
original point all ready to start out again by sunrise." 

The third and final movement of buildings is shrinkage. 
So far as strictly fireproof buildings are concerned, there is 
no shrinkage to be taken into consideration. However, 97 
per cent, of buildings have wooden floor construction, and 
the shrinkage of the joists is a serious problem in plumbing, 
w^hich has caused the breakage of hundreds of thousands of 
closets. 

When a building is erected, the joists are green and 
unseasoned. Even if dry when put in, by the time the 
building is enclosed the joists have been rained upon and 
wetted by the plaster and mortar so they are saturated and 
swollen. While in this condition, the floors are laid and 
the beams then dry out and shrink. This shrinkage may 
be seen in the doors which stick and w^ill not close ; the floors 
which have receded from the base board, leaving a gaping 
opening in which one can put his fingers ; casings which 
open at the joints, and cracks which appear in the plaster 
of partitions supported by the floors. The plumbing like- 
wise is affected by the shrinkage. If the closet connection 
is a rigid one — which it ought not to be — when the shrink- 
age occurs the soil pipe will either be pushed down, dam- 
aged or broken, or the closet held above the floor line a 
distance equal to the shrinkage. When connected up with 
a flexible or collapsible fitting of any kind, the closet base 
always remains on the floor both before and after shrinkage, 
and the fixture or piping are in no way damaged. When 
closets are held above the floor line by a rigid connection, 
on the other hand, breakage often results. 

In Table XVIII can be found the amount building tim- 
bers shrink upon drying. It will be noticed that 12-inch 
joists, the kind commonly used in residence work, shrink 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



83 



.48 or practically V2 inch, while the larger sizes shrink even 
more. The 20-inch joists, a size often used in business 
buildings, shrink over -J J. inch. 

Outlets to Stacks Above Roof. — In cold climates 
vent stacks should be increased in size where they pass 
tlirough the roof. If they are less than 4 inches in diameter 
they should be increased to 4 inches; and if they are 4 
inches or larger in diameter they should be increased one 
size before passing through the roof. The object of in- 
creasing the size of vent stacks where they pass through 
the roof of a building is to reduce the possibility of the 
outlets becoming choked with hoar frost during cold 
weather. The increase in size should be made at least 1 
foot below the under side of the roof, and a long increaser 
fully 16 inches long should be used. In cold climates vent 
stacks should not extend more than 12 inches above the 
roof, as there is greater probability of becoming choked 
with hoar frost where the pipe is exposed. 

TABLE XVIII. Shrinkage of Timbers 



Size of Green or 


Amount Lost by 


Size or Depth of 


Wet Timber 


Shrinkage 4% 


Timber When Dry 


6 inch 


.24 


o . 76 


8 inch 


.32 


7.68 


10 mch 


.40 


9.60 


12 inch 


.48 


11.52 


14 incli 


.56 


13.44 


16 inch 


.64 


15.36 


18 inch 


.72 


17.28 


20 inch 


.80 


10.20 



Roof P'lashings. — Where vent stacks pass through a 
roof the opening around the pipes should be made perfectly 
storm-tight, by flashings of sheet lead or copper. A good 
method of flashing for use in most climates is shown in Fig. 
40. This consists of a collar a of lead soldered to a flange b 
at the same angle as the pitch of the roof; the top edge of 
the collar is made tight around the pipe by working a bead c 
tightly around the pipe with a gasket e of asbestos packing 



84 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



and white lead in between. This makes not only a tight 
connection, but also a flexible one that is not affected by a 
settlement of the pipe. 

In severe climates, where there is danger of hoar frost 
stopping the outlet of the stack, it can be checked to a great 
extent, and in some cases entirely prevented by flashing the 
opening in the manner shown in Fig. 41. In this method 
the pipe extends to a height of about 12 inches above the 
roof, and the opening through the roof is made 2 inches 
larger than the pipe, so there will be a 1-inch space all 
around it. The collar of the flashing is then made the same 
size as the hole in the roof, and is turned over and calked 

into the top of the 
stack as shown. 
This construction 
provides an air 
space around the 
pipe which is open 
to the attic and 
keeps the tempera- 
ture of the exposed 
pipe at about the 
same temperature 
as the inside of the 
building. On tin or 
copper roofs the outer edge of the flange of either style of 
flashing should be well soldered to the metal ; on tar, cement 
or asphalt roofs the flange should be placed between layers 
of roofing material and the finishing course laid upon it. 
On wooden or slate-shingled roofs the upper edge of the 
flange should extend at least two courses up under the 
shingles, and the exposed edges on wood-shingled roofs well 
tacked down with short nails having large heads. 

Sheet copper for flashings should weigh at least 16 
ounces to the square foot, and sheet lead at least 6 pounds 
to the square foot. The roof flange of a flashing should 
extend at least 6 inches on all sides of the stack. Outlets 
to stacks above a roof should be free from caps, cowls or 




Principles and Practice of PUunbing 



85 



heiids, as they obstruct the opening, easily choke with hoar 
frost, and interfere with the free passage of air. Outlets 
should be located well away from the windows, doors or 
ventilating shafts leading to the interior of a building, and, 
when practicable, should be a reasonably safe distance away 
from smoke flues. On buildings that have the ordinary 
pitch roof and on all kinds of roofs in cold climates vent 
stacks need only extend from 12 to 18 inches through the 
roof. On buildings with flat roofs having parapet walls the 
top of the stacks should extend at least 6 inches above the 
level of the walls. On tenement houses or other buildings 
where the roof is easily ac- 
cessible, and used by the 
inmates, the top of all 
stacks should be at least 5 
feet above the roof, and the 
outlet protected by a heavy 
brass wire basket securely 
fastened to the opening to 
prevent articles being drop- 
ped into the stack. 

Supports for Stacks. 
— Soil and waste stacks 
should be firmly supported \ 
at their base by a brick pier 
or iron pipe rest placed di- 
rectly under the stack. If 
the house drain is suspend- ^'"^'^ FiasiuuL 
ed from the ceiling beams, a strong iron hanger should be 
placed on the drain close to the stack and when possible to 
place two hangers, one on each side of the stack, it should 
be done. Besides supporting stacks at their base they 
should also be supported at each floor of the building by 
heavy iron hangers or clamps securely fastened to the side 
walls or floor beams. Pipe hooks may be used in small 
frame buildings, but should not be used in buildings over 
three stories in height. 

Material for Stacks. — Cast-iron hub-and-spigot pipe 
is generally used for soil waste and vent stacks in buildings 




V\iX. 41 

for Cold Cliinalo 



86 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

that do not exceed 65 feet in height. In buildings of greater 
height, wrought-pipe drainage systems are generally in- 
stalled. The recommending features of this system of. 
piping are, greater and more uniform strength of the pipe, 
less number of joints, greater strength and permanence of 
the joints, greater range in the size of pipes and fittings 
and greater flexibility of the pipes and of the system as a 
whole. 

Wrought-pipe drainage systems differ from other 
drainage systems only in the materials of which they are 
constructed and the method of working the materials. 



Principles and Practice of Phinihinij 87 



CHAPTER IX 
TRAPS AND TRAPPING 



Siphon Traps 

Classification of Traps. — Traps are fittings used to 
prevent the passage of air or gas through a pipe without 
materially affecting the flow of sewage. To successfully 
perform the functions for which they are intended, traps 
must be so constructed or protected by vent pipes that they 
cannot be siphoned or have their seals forced by back press- 
ure under any conditions that obtain in a well constructed 
drainage system. Furthermore, they should be self-scour- 
ing at each flush of the fixtures to which they are connected, 
and should contain suflficient depth of water to withstand 
loss by evaporation for a long period of time without break- 
ing the seal. 

There are two types of fixture traps commonly used, 
siphon traps and noU'Siphon traps. The simplest type of 
trap is the running trap of siphon type shown in Fig. 42. 
It consists of a downward dip in a pipe which fills with 
water and thus prevents the passage of air. As this water 
seals the pipe to the passage of air or gases, it is referred 
to as the seal of the trap. The seal of this form of trap is 
formed by the column of water a, and is seldom over 1% 
inches in depth. It is not a good trap for the reason that 
it is only capable of withstanding a back pressure of .068 
I)ound per square inch. If greater pressure is applied the 
water will back up sufliciently in the horizontal inlet to allow 
drain air to blow through the seal as indicated. The height 
t) to which water raises in the inlet end of the trap deter- 
mines the amount of back pressure required to force the 
seal. The form of siphon trap most generally used is showji 
in Fig. 48. It is known as a half S, or P trap. When sub- 
jected to back pressure the water in this trap backs up in 
the vertical inlet leg and reaches a height h of S^A inches 
before drain air can blow through. This water column will 



88 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 




Fig. i2 
EunniBg Trap 



withstand a back pressure of .126 pound per square inch, or 
double the back pressure a running trap will stand. 

SiPHONAGE OF TRAPS. — The water from a trap may be 

siphoned in either of two ways; 
first, by self-siphonage, and sec- 
ond, by aspiration caused by the 
discharge of other fixtures. As 
a matter of fact, there is no dif- 
ference between the siphonic 
actions in the two cases, as they are both due to the fact 
that the long leg of the siphon is flowing full of water, or 
water with air so entrained that it acts as a plunger of 
water. When the water is siphoned by self-siphonage. the 
water flowing from the fixture fills the waste pipe to the 
soil stack, and in that way starts the siphonic action which 
empties the trap. When a trap is siphoned by the discharge 
from another fixture, the other fixture must be located on a 
higher floor ; then when the discharge of water passes the 
branch entrance for the fixture lower down, it fills the stack 
full, thereby forming a long leg from the trap and waste 
pipe. 

A trap can lose its seal from 
self-siphonage only when the 
waste pipe from the trap to the 
stack is unventilated and ex- 
tends below the bottom level of 
the dip a of the trap so as to 
form the long leg of a siphon as 
shown in Fig. 44. If the waste 
pipe extends directly back to the 
main stack, as shown in Fig. 45. 
without dipping below the bot- 
tom of the dip, the trap could not be self-siphoned because 
there would be no long leg; and, provided no fixtures dis- 
charged into the stack above where the waste connects, no 
back vents would be required for the trap. 

Loss OF Seal by Momentum. — Theoretically, a trap 
may lose its seal by momentum. If a trap is placed directly 
beneath a fixture, but some distance below it, a flush of 




Fig. 43 

Half S Trap 



Principle}^ (Did Practice of Plumbing 



89 




Fig. 44 
Self Siphouagf 



water might acquire sutticient momentum to carry it 
through the dip of the trap and into the waste pipe beyond. 
As a matter of fact, however, there are modifying condi- 
tions to prevent such loss. Most 
fixtures as now made have outlets 
so obstructed by strainers or cross- 
bars that the outlets are of less 
area than that of the waste pipe, 
consequently the pipe could noc fill 
full bore and the velocity would 
hardly be sufficient to acquire the 
necessary momentum. If it did, no 
harm w^ould result, as sufficient 
water would adhere to the long 
inlet pipe and to the sides of the 
fixture to again seal the trap. 
Nevertheless, traps should be 
placed as close to fixtures as pos- 
sible, not only to prevent possible loss of seal by momentum, 
but also to avoid a long stretch of untrapped w^aste pipe. 

SiPHONAGE BY ASPIRATION. — When unvented siphon 
traps are used, a trap on one floor of a building may be 
siphoned by water discharged into the stack from a fixture 
at a higher level, as shown in Fig. 46. This is called siphon- 
age by Aspiration. The water discharged into the stack at 
the higher level, in passing the branch to the fixture at the 

lower level, turns the soil pipe into 
a long leg for the siphon trap of 
the lower fixture, as can be seen by 
the illustration, and loss of seal 
results. 

Evaporation of Water from 
Traps. — From experiments made 
by Dr. Unna, Municipal Engineer 
of Cologne, to determine the length 
of time required to destroy the seal of traps by evaporation, 
it can be calculated that under ordinary conditions the seal 
of an unvented siphon trap with a lYi.-inch depth of seal 
will be destroyed in from four and a half to five weeks' time. 



^Z7 




—s ! 



Half S Trap (;oniie<:t ion 



90 



Principles mid Practice of Plumbing 





It may be stated, as a general rule applicable to all types of 
unvented traps, that under ordinary conditions such as 
obtain in a well-constructed drainage system, the rate of 

evaporation will average .4 of an 
inch per week, irrespective of size 
or shape of the surface exposed. 
No experimental data are available 
to show the rate of evaporation of 
water from ventilated traps, but it 
would be safe to assume a rate of 
.8 of an inch per week. 

Non-Siphon Traps. — Non- 
siphon or refill traps are those in 
which the seal cannot be entirely 
destroyed by siphonic action under 
any reasonable condition of cir- 
cumstances likely to prevail in a 
well-installed drainage system. 
Part of the seal can be siphoned 
from a non-siphon trap, but suf- 
ficient water always remains to 
effect a seal. 

The effect of siphonic action on a drum trap, which is 
a simple form of non-siphon trap, is shown in Fig. 47. 
When a partial vacuum is created in the waste pipe, atmos- 
pheric pressure forces part of the seal from the trap. 
When, however, the water in the trap reaches a certain 
level, no reasonable amount of siphonic influence can lower 
it more ; air then breaks through the seal, dashing the water 
to all sides. After the vacuum is broken, from all sides of 
the trap the water settles back in the bottom, thus main- 
taining the seal. Sufficient water always remains in the 
bottom of this form of trap to effect a perfect seal. All 
forms of non-siphon traps are made with enlarged bodies, 
some of which contain baffle plates to deflect the water from 
the outlet. 

The seal of a non-siphon trap is shown at a in Fig. 48, 
and is the depth of water between the top arc of the inlet 
pipe, and the bottom arc of the outlet pipe. The full seal is 



=^ 



Fig. 46 

Sjphonage by 

Aspiration 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



91 



shown here, although after being subjected to siphonic 
action, the seal would not be over perhaps % inch. 

Effect of Back Pressure on Non-Siphon Trap. — The 
most common form of a non-siphon trap is a drum trap. 
In this form of trap the area of the body usually is four 
times the area of the waste pipe, so that to force the seal 
by back pressure, suHicient pressure is required to sustain 
a column of water h, Fig. 49, live 
times the depth of seal a. The 
depth of seal generally is 4 inches, 
hence to force the seal by back 
pressure, a pressure suflicient to 
sustain a column of water 20 
inches high is required. This col- 
umn of water is equal to a pressure 
of .728 pound per square inch. 




a'/''^*^ 



Fig. 47 

KlToel of Sipbonie Action on 
Non- Siphon Trap 

Evaporation from . Non-Siphon Traps is not more 
rapid than from an equal size siphon trap, and calculated 
by the constant of evaporation, .4 of an inch per week, it 
would take, under ordinary conditions, fifty weeks for a 
3-inch body drum trap with 4-inch seal and li/)-inch waste 
pipe to lose its seal. 

Self-Scouring Action of Traps. — The chief objection 
to non-siphon traps heretofore has been that owing to their 

enlarged bodies they were not self- 
cleaning, hence they afforded a 
fouling place for the deposit of 
sediment. This objection has to a 
certain extent been overcome as a 
result of the discovery that water 
^^^^^ introduced with a rotary motion to 
the enlarged chamber thereby 
scoured it. 

Grease Traps. — Grease traps 
are separators in which grease, fats and oils are separated 
from greasy waste water, the grease being retained in the 
trap while the water escapes to the drainage system. They 
are used in connection with kitchen, scullery or other sinks, 
into which large quantities of greasy water are emptied, to 




Fig. 48 
Sr«nl of Non-Si[)hon Trap 



92 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



intercept the grease while in a fluid state and thus prevent 
its adhering to the waste pipes, v/here it would congeal and 
successive deposits in time choke the pipe. 

Conditions Governing Use of Grease Traps. — Grease 
traps should be used to intercept the grease from all kitchen 
sinks in cities that have installed systems of sewerage from 
which storm water is excluded. Under such conditions, the 
sewers are so small and so poorly flushed that great liability 
would exist of partial or complete stoppage from the grease 
if grease traps were omitted. When a city has installed a 
combined system of sewer and storm water drains, grease 
traps may be omitted if the kitchen sink is not over fifty 

feet from the street sewer and the 
main house drain runs through the 
cellar exposed to the heat of a fur- 
nace. However, when the sink is 
over fifty feet from the street 
sewer, or when the main house 
drain is buried in the earth, so 
grease would be likely to chill be- 
fore it reached the street sewer, 
grease traps should be used. Also 
they should in every case be used 
in all large institutions, boarding- 
houses, hotels and bake shops or 
other buildings where large quant- 
ities of grease are liable to find 
their way into the drainage sys- 
tem. 

Location for Grease Traps. — A grease trap should 
be located as close as possible to the sink from which it 
receives the discharges. It should not be placed in the 
kitchen, however, on account of the offensive odors that 
would enter the room every time the trap was opened to 
remove the grease. In detached dwellings, grease traps 
Usually are made of brick and placed outside the house. A 
better practice is to make the trap of iron and locate it in 
the cellar or basement, safe from frost and close to the 
source of ofrease. 




Fig. 49 

Effect of Back Pressure on 
Non-Sipbon Trap 



rriticiplcs (Dul Ptaciicc of Plnmbing 



93 



Size of Grease Traps. — Grease traps to be effective 
must have at least twice the capacity of the greatest (luant- 
ity of greasy water likely to be discharged at one time into 
them. This is so that the entering water will be chilled 
and the grease congealed and rise to the surface of the 
water, thus being retained in the trap. If the grease traps 
are too small, part of the entering water will pass through 
the outlet into the drain before it is sufficiently cooled, car- 
rying with it whatever grease it holds in suspension, which 
will adhere to the pipes. In ordinary residences, a dishpan 
full of greasy water is the greatest quantity likely to be 
emptied at one time, and if the grease trap is made to hold 
at least twice that 
quantity, it will fulfill 
all requirements. In 
hotels, clubs and other 
large institutions 
where a great many 
people are fed, the 
probable amount of 
greasy water liable to 
be discharged at one 
time must be estimat- j^,.i^, -^ 

ed, and the grease (Jn-aso Tnip 

trap made with a capacity of twice that amount. 

Types of Grease Traps. — There are t\^'o types of 
grease traps in use: An ordinary trap with large inter- 
cepting chamber, as shown in Fig. 50, and a water jacket 
grease trap. Fig. 51, around which cold water circulates to 
chill the water in the trap. The water for this purpose is 
taken from the cold-water supply pipe, and must pass 
through the water jacket of the grease trap before being 
drawn from a faucet. When a water supply pipe is con- 
nected to a grease trap for this purpose, it should be con- 
tinued to some unimportant fixture, or else connected to 
the hot-water tank, as water that passes through a grease 
trap jacket absorbs heat from the w^ater within the trap and 
becomes disagreeably warm for most domestic uses. 

Slip-Joints. — Joints in which one pipe or member 




94 



PriiiripJf.s and Practice af Plutnhing 



slips inside of another and the junction between the two is 
made tight with a gasket compressed by means of a screw 
thread or bolts, are known as slip-joints. Any joint in 
which the parts are not bound together, but one part may 
be slipped out of place, having nothing to oA'ercome in doing 
so but the resistance of the grip of the compressed gasket, 
should be classed as a slip- joint no matter what its use. 

Slip joints are permissible and very convenient when 
used on the house side of a fixture trap. Under no condi- 
tion, however, should a slip-joint be permitted on the sewer 
side of a trap, particularly on the sewer side of a water 
closet trap. Indeed, a gasket joint of any kind should not 

be permitted on the 
sewer side of any 
trap, and a slip- joint, 
which is the least se- 
cure of all forms of 
gasket joints, is the 
most objectionable 
joint of them all. The 
rule can be laid doAvn 
that under no condi- 
tion should a gasket 
joint of any kind be 
permitted on the sewer side of any trap. If a gasket is 
used, no further evidence need be looked for. The gasket 
alone stamps it as insanitary. Attention should be called 
here to the fact that water closets are set with a putty joint, 
gasket, or sometimes a slip joint, which is extremely bad 
practice. 

Distance of Back-Vent from Trap. — The distance 
the back-vent can be placed from a trap without danger of 
the trap being self-siphoned depends entirely on the fall to 
the waste pipe from the trap to the stack. If the fall is 
slight, the vent pipe can connect to the waste pipe further 
away from the trap than when the fall is great. The rule 
is : Connect the back- vent to the waste pipe at such a point 
that the vent opening will be above the level of the water 




Fig:. 51 
WnkT -Tucket Grr-asc Tnip 



Pruiciplcs inul Practice of Plumbuiy 95 

in the trap. There will then be no long unventilated leg to 
form a siphon. 

The application of this rule can be seen by referring 
back to P'ig. 45, which shows two traps, one in solid lines, 
the other in dotted lines, each a different distance from the 
soil stack, yet each free from danger of self-siphonage be- 
cause neither waste pipe from the trap dips low enough 
before entering the stack to form the long leg of a siphon. 
Whether there would be danger of siphonage from other 
fixtures discharging into the stack at higher levels would 
depend on the relative size of the stack, and the greatest 
discharge of water that would enter it at the higher level, 
and would be within reasonable limits independent of the 
distance of the trap from the stack. Indeed, the pull on 
the water in a trap is greater the nearer the trap is to the 
stack. It would be perfectly safe to set a closet four to 
live feet from a stack, and a small fixture-trap six to seven 
feet from the stack. 

Back-Venting Traps. — Siphon traps, unprotected 
from siphonage by vent pipes, offer no security whatsoever 
against the passage of drain air into a building; therefore, 
any system of plumbing in which siphon traps are used 
should be properly vented or back-vented. A vent pipe not 
only protects the seal of a trap from siphonage, but also 
relieves the seal from back pressure and affords ventilation 
for the short length of waste pipe from the soil or waste 
stack to the fixture trap. This last consideration is of but 
small importance, however, because the air in branch waste 
pipes is changed each time the fixture it connects to is 
llusiied. Furthermore, the air in the short lengths is kept 
fairly jjiire by diflusioii with the air in the soil or waste 
stack. 

Vent Connections to Traps.— An old method of 
back-venting fixture traps was to connect the vent pipe to 
the crown of the trap, as at a, Fig. 52. A better practice, 
however, is to connect the vent pipe to the waste pipe a few 
inches away from the trap, as at I), but not far enough away 
so the waste pipe would form the long leg of a siphon. When 
a vent pipe is connected to the crown of a trap it increases 



96 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



the rate of evaporation of water from the trap ; also, when 
much grease is emptied into a fixture the vent pipe, if con- 
nected to the crown, is liable to become entirely stopped up 
with the grease.* 

Example of Back-Venting. — An example of back- 
venting the fixture traps in an ordinary bath room is shown 
in Fig. 53. The chief conditions to be here noted are: 
(1) The height of the vent pipe where it enters the vent 
_ _ stack. It is kept above the outlet to 

the highest fixture in the group so 
that the vent pipe cannot be used as 
a waste pipe by any of the fixtures 
in case the waste pipe becomes ob- 
structed; (2) the vent pipe slopes 
from the vent stack toward the fix- 
ture traps to discharge into the waste 
pipes all water of condensation or 
any sewage that might back up in the 
vent pipes, should the waste pipe be 
obstructed; (3) the distance away 
away from the seal of traps at which 
the vent pipes connect to the waste 
pipes. It should be further observed 
that the vent to the water closet does 
not connect to the closet trap above 
the floor, but to the lead bend below 
the floor, as a permanent and secure 
joint cannot be made to an earthen- 
ware closet trap, owing to the shrink- 
age of the floor joists which would 
break the vent horn of the closet. If 
the closet is either of the siphon-jet 
or the siphon-action type, no vent will 
be necessary, providing fixtures do 
not discharge into the soil stack at a higher level, because 
siphonic action is necessary to operate either type of closet, 

*TnsnGctor W J Freanev, of St. Paul, in an examination of vent pipes from 
fixture trap^ found that out of twenty-three traps from kitchen sinks, twelve 
were completelv obstructed with grease, ten partially obstructed, and only one 
perfectly clear " The latter, however, had been regularly inspected and cleaned. 




Fig. rii! 

Back -Yen ted 

Traps 



*^«a 



FriNri})l(s (I Hit Pructice of Phnnbutg 



97 



and the after-wash from the Ikish cistern is depended upon 
to again seal the trap. Main-drain traps, leader traps, 
yard and area traps and stall drain traps do not require 
back-venting, because if they are emptied by siphonage 
their seals are soon replaced by drippings. 

Connecting Several Fixtures to One Trap. — When 
a number of wash basins are grouped together in a wash 
room of a factory, hotel, or other institution it is common 
practice to connect the waste pipes from all the basins to 
one trap. A better practice, how^ever, is to trap each basin 
separately. When but one trap is used in an installation 
of this kind, it leaves untrapped a large stretch of pipe, 
which in time becomes foul and emits disagreeable odors, 
that are carried into the room by local currents of air cir- 
culating in through the pipe at one basin connection and 
out at another basin. 

Kitchen Sinks and Laundry Trays. — There are con- 
ditions under which the use of one trap for two or more 
fixtures is permissi- 
ble. In apartment 
buildings, w here 
laundry trays ad- 
join the kitchen 
sink, and there is a 
possibility that for 
long periods of time 
the trays may not 
be used, it not only 
is permissible but 
perhaps better to 

connect the waste pipe from the trays to the house side of 
the sink trap below the water level. By this arrangement a 
permanent seal is assured the trays whether they are used 
or not. The waste pipes from the ti'ays, however, should 
be offset above the water level in the trap so the waste pipe 
will not stand full of water. 

The waste pipe from the kitchen sink should never 
connect to a laundry-tray trap, as that would leave untrap- 
ped a greater stretch of pipe than when the conditions are 




lO.vaiuple of Back- V«Mil iiii; 



98 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

reversed ; besides, the untrapped pipe would soon foul from 
the greasy sink water passing through it, and local circula- 
tion would set up from the tub waste through the tray 
waste, carrying the odors into the kitchen. 

Clothes Washing Machines.— In these days of ma- 
chines and machine labor, no private laundry is complete 
without a power operated machine washer for the launder- 
ing of the household linen. Machines designed for this* 
purpose may now be had which can be supplied with hot 
and cold water, and connected to the drainage system. 
These machines are made for motors which are electrically 
operated, or with motors which are operated with water 
supplied from the city water mains. When water power 
is to be used, however, there must be an available pressure 
at the motor of at least 30 pounds per square inch, with fair 
volume, or the motor will not operate satisfactorily. 

In addition to a washing machine, a gas-heated or 
electrically-heated mangle will be found a valuable fixture 
in the laundry of every good-sized home. On the mangle 
most of the household ironing can be done, outside of the 
more particular pieces which are best done by hand, and 
between the washing machine and the mangle, the hardest 
and heaviest of household work is done without an effort. 



Friiiriplfs avd Practice of Plinnbrng 



99 



CHAPTER X 
BLOW-OFF TANKS AND REFHICERATOR WASTES 



Hlow-Oft T-anks for Boilers 

Effect of Steam in Drainage Systems. — High press- 
ure steam boilers should never blow off or exhaust directly 
into a drainage system, but should first pass through a cool- 
ing tank that will condense the steam and cool the water to 
a moderate temperature. When live steam is discharged 
directly into a drainage system the steam heats the water 
in traps, causing it to vaporize and emit a disagreeable 
odor within the building. Also, if the system is constructed 
of cast iron with lead calked joints the expansion and con- 
traction of the lines will work the lead calking out of the 
hubs and cause the joints to leak. 

Type of Blov^-Off Tanks. — A blow-off tank and con- 
nections are shown in Fig. 54. Water enters the condens- 
ing tank from the boiler through the pipe a. When re- 
leased from pressure, some of the water instantly flashes 
into steam and es- 
capes to the atmos- 
phere through the H 
vapor pipe, h. '' " """" 
water entering the 
lank causes cold 
water from the bot- 
tom of the tank 
to overflow through 
the pipe c, to the 
house sewer outside 
of the main drain 
trap. An equalizing pipe, d, admits air to the overflow 
pipe and thus prevents the water being siphoned out of the 
tank. 

Where gravity discharge cannot be had, boilers may be 
allowed to blow off into a sump, and the water when it has 



% 



"°^a%_____^^^ 



4i 



vir< 



Fig. r»4 
r.low-Off Tank 



100 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



cooled pumped out with a submerged centrifugal pump of 
the vertical type, direct connected to a motor. A vent from 
the sump to the atmosphere should be provided. 

Size of Blow-Off Tanks.— A blow-off tank should be 
large enough to hold one gauge of water from the steam 
boiler. In bloAving off a steam boiler, one gauge of water is 
the most that should be blown off at one time, and if the 
tank is large enough to hold that quantity it will be suffi- 
ciently large for all purposes. The size of tank required 
can be found by multiplying the length of the steam boiler 
in feet by the diameter in feet and multiplying the product 
by one-third (4 inches being considered the depth of one 
gauge of water) . This product will be the capacity in cubic 
feet of the tank required. 

Example — What capacity blow-off tank will be required for a steam boiler 
18 feet long and 5 feet in diameter? 

Solution— 18 X 5 X % = 30 cubic feet, and 30 X 7.5 = 225 gallons 
capacity. 

Stock sizes of blow-off tanks can be found in Table XIX. 
TABLE XIX. Dimensions and Capacities of Blow-Off Tanks 



Capacity 
Cubic 


Ca via city 


Length 


Diaiu. 
in 


Approx- 
imate 


Feet 


Gallons 


in feet 


Inches 


Weight 


33 


250 


6 


30 


500 


43 


325 


8 


30 


650 


53 


400 


10 


30 


800 


63 


475 


8 


36 


800 


80 


600 


10 


36 


950 


90 


700 


12 


36 


1100 


133 


1000 


12 


42 


1400 


166 


1250 


12 


48 


1700 



When ordering blow-off tanks the order should be 
accompanied by a sketch shoAving the location and size of 
the several outlets. 

When several boilers are connected in battery one 
blow-off tank will suffice for all, provided sufficient time is 
allowed between blowing off the several boilers for the 
water in the tank to cool, or if provision is made for cool- 
ing the hot water with cold water coils. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



101 



RoofL/ne . 



Size of Tank Outlets. — Blow-off outlets to steam 
boilers are seldom over two inches in diameter, therefore 
the inlet to blow-off tanks need not be over 2 inches, iron- 
pipe size. The outlet, how^ever, should be 2 1/2 or 3 inches 
in diameter, so the water will enter the sewer at a slow 
velocity. The vapor pipe 
should be 2 inches in diam- 
eter, and if it extends over 
100 feet should be 2>/j inches 
in diameter. 

Drips from high-press- 
ure plants do not require a 
condensing tank but may con- 
nect to an atmospheric steam 
trap discharging into the 
house sewer outside of the 
main drain trap. 

Blow-offs from low-press- 
ure boilers need not pass 
through either a condensing 
tank or a steam trap, but may 
discharge freely into the 
house sewer outside of the 
main drain trap, if there is 
one, or in the house sewer 
where there is no main drain 
trap. 

Kefrigerator Wastes 



y 



ir 'rMlFmy^ ' T')r- 




^ 



w 



^llr=3jl:5 



\^-' 



System of Piping. — In 
apartment houses, of the bet- 
ter class, refrigerator waste 
pipes are usually installed to 
carry off the drip from ice 
boxes in the several apart- 
ments. Fig. 55 shows the general system of piping for 
refrigerator wastes. The main refrigerator stack does not 
connect to the drainage system but discharges into a trap- 



Fig. 55 

Itcrri^^ri-Mtor Wiisto Pipes 



102 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



Fig. 5G 

Refrigerator 
Safe- Pan 



ped and water-supplied sink in the cellar or basement, and 
should open to the atmosphere above the roof. 

Galvanized wrought iron pipe should be used for 
refrigerator wastes, and the ends should be well reamed to 
remove the burr formed by cutting the pipe. Fittings 
should be of the recessed drainage type, well galvanized 
both inside and out. Full Y fittings should be used for 
branch connections to the various refrigerator safes, and a 
Y branch with clean-out plug should be used at all changes 
of direction of the horizontal mains. 

The main waste pipe from refrigerators should 

never be less than 
114 inches diameter, 
and seldom need be 
over 11/2 inches. 
Branch connections 
to the refrigerator 
safes, also refrige- 
rator wastes in pri- 
vate houses, need 
not be over 1 inch in diameter. 

Refrigerator Safes. — The manner of con- 
structing and lining refrigerator safes is shown 
in Fig. 56. Beveled supporting strips are nail- 
ed to the floor to form a shallow pan, about IV2 
inches deep, which should be made water-tight 
by lining with sheet lead or sheet copper. The 
outlet from the pan should be countersunk, and the opening 
protected by a removable strainer secured in place by a 
cross bar. Brass, aluminum, galvanized cast-iron refrig- 
erator safes, also earthenware safes with couplings, can 
now be had. Any of these materials is better than lead safe 
pans. 

Trapping Refrigerator Safes. — Each refrigerator 
safe should be separately and properly trapped and con- 
nected to the main refrigerator waste stack. The best type 
of trap to use for this purpose is a plain siphon trap of % S 
pattern. The angle of the outlet leg of a % S trap permits 
the slime that accumulates in the waste pipe from an ice 




Principles ami Pracficr of Plumbing 103 

box to slide into the vertical stack and thence to the sink. 
It is not necessary to back-vent refrigerator waste traps, 
nor use non-siphon traps, because a flush of water of suffi- 
cient volume to siphon a trap is never discharged into a 
refrigerator waste; even if it were, the constant drip from 
the ice box would soon seal the trap again. 

In private houses the refrigerator waste need only ex- 
tend from the refrigerator safe to the drip sink, where it 
should terminate with a light swing-check valve to prevent 
cellar air entering the living rooms through the waste pipe. 
No trap is required where only one refrigerator connects to 
a waste, nor is it necessary in such cases to extend the pipe 
through the roof. 



104 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XI 
MECHANICAL DISCHARGE SYSTEMS 



Sub-Sewer Systems. — Mechanical ejectment of sew- 
age is resorted to in cases where the street sewer is above 
the level of the area to be drained. This condition, how- 
ever, is only found in the sub-basement floors of tall city 
buildings, underground public toilet rooms and underground 
passenger stations. 

A system of mechanical ejectment consists of a gravity 
drainage system to a receiving tank or sump located in a 
water-tight pit at the lowest part of the drainage system, 
and a pump or compressed air ejector to raise the sewage 
and discharge it into the street sewer. 

Systems of piping for sub-sewer drainage are the same 
as for gravity discharge systems. In cities where main drain 
traps are required, the sub-sewer system should have a main 
drain trap and fresh air inlet, and the fixture stacks should 
extend through the roof. In short, a sub-sewer system is 
exactly the same as a gravity system, except the mechanical 
apparatus for elevating the sewage. A separate vent pipe 
should extend from the tank or sump to above the roof. 

Centrifugal Pump Ejectors. — There are three types 
of apparatus used to raise sewage to the street sewer, each 
of which has certain features to recommend it. When the 
volume of the sewage to be removed is large and the height 
to be raised is small, a centrifugal pump will give very 
satisfactory results. This type of pump can be driven by 
belting or may be operated by an electric motor direct-con- 
nected to the pump shaft. By means of a float and an auto- 
matic switch an electric-driven pump can be made to operate 
automatically, starting when the tank is filled with sewage 
and stopping when it is empty. The manner of installing a 
centrifugal pump and tank is shown in Fig. 57. With this 
type of ejector an ordinary steel tank is used that may be 
either open or closed. The pump should be set below the 
level of the receiving tank, so it will remain full of w^ater 



Principles and Practice af Plunihinii 



105 



and not require priming. If placed above the level of the 
tank a primer will be necessary to start the pump, and this 
so complicates the apparatus that it is more difficult to fit 
up to work automatically. Where the sewage is coarse and 
full of solid matter, as is likely to be the case in slaughter 
houses or factories, a centrifugal pump will give the best 
results. It has few working parts to get out of order, and 
no parts that can choke up and thus render the pump tem- 
porarily useless ; for any substance, even coal or bricks, that 
passes through the inlet port can easily be discharged from 




I'ig. 57 
< "♦■III rilii;r:il riiiiii) Scwatfe Lifl 

the outlet. Speed is an important factor in the capacity of 
centrifugal pumps; increasing the speed increases the 
capacity and also the height to which it will raise sewage, 
while decreasing the speed will reduce considerably the 
volume of sewage and the height it will be raised. Direct- 
connected, electrically-operated, vertical type of submerged 
centrifugal pumps are best for the purpose. 

The operation of the apparatus shown in Fig. 57 is as 
follows: Sewage enters the sump a through the house 
drain h; as the tank fills, the sewage raises the float c, and 
thus by means of the chain, pulleys and weight iv, depresses 



106 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

the lever d until it reaches a certain point when contact is 
made that completes an electric circuit connected to the 
electric motor e. The current thus automatically turned 
on operates the electric motor that drives the pump p, and 
thus ejects the sewage from the tank through the discharge 
pipe to the sewer s. As the water line in the tank lowers, 
the float falls until it reaches a certain level near the bottom, 
when the automatic switch opens, thus breaking the electric 
circuit and stopping the pump. 

Piston-Pump Ejectors. — When the volume of sewage 
to be raised is small or the height it is to be elevated is 
great, the piston type of pump will give the be^t results. 
The sewage should be screened, however, before entering 
the suction pipe of this type of pump, to prevent the en- 
trance of anything that might have been carelessly intro- 
duced into the drainage system which might interfere with 
or injure the working parts of the pump. Piston pumps 
are suitable only for comparatively clear sewage, and should 
not be used where coarse, insoluble materials are discharged 
into the drain or where chemicals are discharged that might 
cut the valve seats of a pump. 

Piston pumps may be electrically driven or operated 
by steam, and may be made to operate automatically or to 
be started and stopped by an attendant. The manner of 
installing a piston pump ejector is similar to the manner 
of installing a centrifugal pump ejector, with the single 
exception that a piston pump may be located at any conveni- 
ent point not over twenty-eight feet above the level of the 
sump. When steam is the motive power, the pump may be 
connected up to work automatically in the same manner as 
a feed-water pump and receiver. 

COMPRESSED-AiR EJECTORS. — Air ejectors are now 
more generally used for sewage ejectment than any other 
type of apparatus. They are automatic and almost noise- 
less in operation, are perfectly odorless, and have but few 
working parts than can get out of order. A type of com- 
pressed air ejector known as the Shone, is illustrated in 
Fig. 58. Sewage flows into the chamber a through the 
house drain h. As the chamber Alls with sewage it raises 



rriifciplrs (Did Praviicv of IHtunbinfj 



07 



the bucket c until it reaches a certain level, when by means 
of the rod (/, it opens valve e, thus admitting compressed 
air to chamber a. The pressure of air closes the check 
valve / through which sewage entered the chamber and 
opens check valve (j through which it forces the contents of 
the sump into the street sewer. As the sewage level in the 
sump falls, the bucket float, which remains full of sewage, 
lowers with the contents until it reaches a point near the 
bottom of the chamber, when it closes the air valve, thus 




Fijr. .IS 
('oiniti'cssod Air Sowajrc Ejector 

shutting off the supply of compressed air, and at the same 
time opening a vent through w^hich the confined air can 
escape to a vent stack. Valve h is placed in the house drain 
pipe to the tank, and valve / in the discharge pipe from the 
tank, so that the ejector may be cut out of service at any 
time. 

Sewage ejectment apparatus should always be installed 
in duplicate so that either apparatus may be cut out for 



108 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



cleaning or repairs without interrupting the drainage 
service. The manner of installing a duplicate compressed 
air apparatus is shown in Fig. 59. 

The size of sump tanks for sewage ejectment depends 
upon the frequency with which they are to be emptied and 
the probable amount of sewage to be taken care of. When 
operated automatically they need only be large enough to 
hold an hour's storage of sewage, during the hour of maxi- 
mum flow. The process of emptying occupies only a few 
minutes, when the tank is ready for service again. If the 
apparatus is not to be operated automatically, storage 



Gasemenf Ceit/nf 




Fig. 50 

System <>f Sub-Server Mechanical 
Discbarge 



capacity for twenty-four hours should be provided. In esti- 
mating the quantity of sewage from basement floors of 
different classes of buildings, greater per capita allowance 
should be made for the basement and sub-basement floors 
of hotels and like institutions than from other classes of 
buildings. 

Storage tanks for compressed air are usually made of 
galvanized sheet iron similar to those used for the storage 
of hot water. They should be equal in size to the cubical 
capacity of the sumps they are to discharge. When made 
of such a size, at least two pounds pressure of air should 



Principles and Practice of Plurrihivii 



109 




be maintained as working pressure for each foot in height 
the sewage must be raised; with greater pressure a more 
speedy ejectment is obtained. To operate satisfactorily 
with lifts of less than 7 feet, at least 15 pounds pressure of 
air should be maintained ; oO to 40 pounds is the pressure 
the average sewage ejectment plant operates under. 

Sub-Soil Drainage 

Object of Sub-Soil Drainage. — In localities where 
the ground water is high or where impervious strata of clay 
or rock causes seepage to dampen the foundation walls or 
wet the cellar floor, sub-soil drains are resorted to. The 
manner of laying a 
sub-soil drain is 
shown in Fig 60. A 
line of field tile is 
laid around the out- 
side of the founda- 
tion wall below the SS:;§;M^&!^^^;v^ 
level of the founda- •-•••-^^-^••-•>-^--^-^^^'^ 

tion footings or the 
cellar floor. The 
pipes are laid with 
open joints which 

are covered with '••v^;? 

tile collars, pieces 
of tar paper, ex- 
celsior, bagging or some other coarse material that will 
keep out dirt until the earth settles and packs into shape. 
The drain should be covered for a depth of 12 to 18 inches 
with crushed stone and the trench then filled to within a 
foot of the top with loose porous materials through which 
water will easily percolate to the drain. The top dressing 
for the trench may be any kind of good loamy soil suitable 
for a lawn. 

Disposal of Sub-Soil Water. — When the street sewer 
is provided with a sub-sewer drain, as is usually the case in 
localities where the ground water is high, the proper place 
to dispose of sub-soil water is in the sub-sewer drain. Most 



;<=>; 



:<^-. 



-^>'«jr>\<3".'"'.A>- •••••■•••■••■ 
<?>:\-.'TS.rP.:y:-^-.:.:r.-.-..-.^^ 



■«».•::.• 



Fi.ix. (10 
Siil)-Soil Diiiin 



110 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

brick sewers, Fig. 61, are provided with a tile invert, a, the 
channels of which serve as a sub-sewer drain ; and pipe 
sewers in wet districts usually have a field pipe sub-sewer 
drain. When, however, there is no sub-sewer drain the 
sub-soil water can discharge into the house sewer through a 
water seal and tide water trap. Sometimes a sub-soil drain 
is so far below the sewer level that sub-soil water cannot 
discharge into it by gravity. When such is the case, it can 
be gathered in a sump and discharged to the street sewer by 
a submerged type centrifugal pump. If, however, the 
volume of water is too small, and the distance it is to be 
raised too short to warrant installing a sewage ejectm.ent 

apparatus, an automatic cellar 
W0^-'^W-<Wi^-i^?y^ drainer, may be used. This type 
^^^^^^^^^^^M^^^i^^^ ^^ apparatus may be operated by 
"^Sc^^^^^^^^-'-f'- water or steam, although city 
St^m ^^?S water is generally used. It can- 

y^H K'-v^i- ^^^ ^^ operated by air pressure. It 

'•'^^m. ;^pfe^ operates on the principle of an 

'^i'0^k ^-'^^'i ejector. The drainer is placed in 

;^:l;:5?^^v^^^^§:^; a pit below the level of the cellar 
>:Hi^^:^;^:C^O^;:^^^^^^^:^ floor, into which the sub-soil water 
'^^:o^-:y:<-::'}\'^Jy^:};f^ drains. When the water reaches a 

Fig. 61 certain level it raises the float ; this 

Tile Invert of Brick Sewer ^^^^^^ ^-^^ ^^.^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ appara- 
tus, and as the water flows through the ejector nozzle, it 
entrains water from the pit which mixes with the city water 
in the pipe, and together they are discharged into a water- 
supplied sink at some convenient point. When the water is 
discharged from the pit the float falls again, thus shutting 
off the flow of the city water until the pit fills again. This 
method, however, is too expensive to use for discharging 
large quantities of water and is not economically effective 
for a greater lift than 12 feet. The height to which water 
can be raised by a cellar drainer depends upon the available 
water pressure; with a pressure of 100 pounds, water can 
be raised 25 feet, but the amount of city water required to 
raise water that height makes the method too expensive for 
handling large quantities of water. At least four pounds 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 111 

of pressure are required for each foot of lift, with a mini- 
mum pressure of at least 10 pounds. 

The possibility of using water from automatic cellar 
drainers for flushing" fixtures should not be overlooked. 
Ordinarily, the water discharged by a water drainer is per- 
fectly clear, being nothing more or less than the ordinary 
ground water of the locality. To this must be added the 
city water used for operating the drainer, which, of course, 
is also clear and suitable for flushing purposes. 

Where there are basement closets or urinals to be 
flushed, or water can be used on an overshot water wheel 
for operating mechanical apparatus, as is done with some 
domestic ice-making machines, the drainage water can be 
used for this purpose, thereby making the operation of the 
drainer free of cost. 

The lower the lift of the drainage water, the less water 
will be required for the purpose, so, instead of a water 
supplied sink, ordinarily the water can be discharged into a 
floor drain, or yard drain if the climate is not too cold. 

An automatic cellar drainer, or a mechanical discharge 
system of any kind, ought never to be used, of course, when 
it is possible to take care of the drainage water by gravity. 
It is only when the surface to be drained is below the level of 
the street sewer or other place of sewage disposal or drain- 
age water disposal, that they are permissible. 

It is not advisable to connect an automatic cellar 
drainer direct to a drainage system, for, besides the possi- 
bility of sewer air finding its way into the house through the 
connection during dry weather, there is the additional possi- 
bility of water running continuously to waste through the 
cellar drainer should it get out of order without any one 
being aware of the fact. Both sanitary and economic rea- 
sons, therefore, require that a cellar drainer discharge into 
a tank, sink, floor drain, or other receptacle where the 
water can be seen running when the apparatus is in 
operation. 

Drainers will work satisfactorily with 4 pounds press- 
ure to one foot in lift. To raise water: 



112 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



1 foot requires 4 to 5 lbs. pressure ' 

2 " " 8 " 10 '' 
12 '' 15 '' 
16 " 20 " 
20 '' 25 '' 

and so on in proportion up to 12 feet in height. Drainers 
do not satisfactorily lift water more than 12 feet. 



Pyi}irip}(s (lihl f'KH-ticc of [*linnbin(f 113 

PART II 

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 

COLD WATER SUPPLY 



CHAPTER XII 
PROPERTIES OF WATER 



General Data About Water. — Pure water is a color- 
less, tasteless, odorless, limpid fluid, that is practically 
incompressible; for each atmosphere of pressure it sus- 
tains it is compressed only 47V2 millionths of its bulk. Its 
compressibility is from .000040 to .000051 for one atmos- 
phere, decreasing with increasing temperature. For each 
foot of pressure, distilled water will be diminished in volume 
.0000015 to .0000013 of its bulk. Water is so nearly incom- 
pressible that even at a depth of a mile a cubic foot of water 
will weigh only about half a pound more than at the surface. 
It is a chemical combination of oxygen and hydrogen in the 
proportions of 88.9 parts by weight of oxygen to 11.1 parts 
of hydrogen, or 1 volume of oxygen to 2 volumes of hydro- 
gen. Its weight varies with its temperature; at 62' F., 
which is taken as the average temperature, 1 cubic foot 
weighs 62.355 pounds. 

For ordinary calculations, the weight is taken in round 
numbers at 62.5 pounds per cubic foot: when greater pre- 
cision is required, it is taken at 62.4 pounds per cubic foot, 
its weight at 52.3 F. 

The gallon is the unit of measure for water. One gal- 
lon of water measures .134 cubic feet, contains 231 cubic 
inches, and at 62 F. weighs about 8'- pounds. The United 
States gallon differs from the British or Imperial gallon, 
with which it should not be confused. A comparison of the 
American and Imperial gallon may be found in Table XX. 



114 



Principles and Pixtctice of Plumbing 



TABLE XX. Weight and Capacity of Different Standard 

Gallons of Water 



Imperial or English. 

United States 

New York 



6-5 



277.274 

231 

221.8171^ 



C Cl 
S. ig c 



10.00 
8.33448 
8.00 



.S o 



6.232102 
7.480519 
7.901285 



■"■err, 
tr. o 
fl — o 

1o§ 



^ cs 



70,465 

58,327 
58,538 



Cj O TO C o; 

S3 «^ 3 



62.321 
62.321 
62.321 



Notable Temperature of Water.- 
notable temperatures for water, viz. : 



-There are four 



Fahr, 


Cent. 


32° 


or 0° 


39.]° 


or 4° 


62° 


or 16.66 


212° 


or 100° 



:= the freezing point under one atmosphere; 

:= the point of maximum density; 

= the British standard temperature; 

= the boiling point under one atmosphere. 

The weight of one cubic foot of water at the four 
notable temperatures may be found in Table XXI. 

TABLE XXI. Weight of Water 



At 32° F 62.418 pounds 

At 39. 1° , 62.425 pounds 

At 62° (standard temperature). .' 62.355 pounds 

At 212° 59. 640 pounds 



The following factors are useful for changing given 
quantities of water from one denomination to another : 

1 cubic inch of water weighs .577 ounce or .03608 pound. 
1 cubic foot contains 1,728 cubic inches. 

1 cubic foot contains 7.485 United States gallons, which, in ordinary calcula- 
tions, is taken as 7.5 gallons. 

Cubic feet X 62.5 = pounds 

Pounds -7- 62.5 = cubic feet 

Gallons X 8.3 = pounds 

Pounds . .^ -^- 8.3 = gallons 

Cubic feet X 7.5 =r gallons 

Gallons -^ 7.5 =r cubic feet 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 115 

Snow and Ice. — Water expands in freezing about one- 
twelfth of its bulk, or from 1000 to 1083. Sea water freezes 
at 27 F. The ice is fresh. 

Specific gravity of ice, 0.916 Ure. 

Specific gravity of ice, 0.918 Miller. 

Specific gravity of ice, 0.9184 Ahel & Bioxain. 

1595 cubic inches of water will expand in freezing- to 
one cubic foot of ice. One pound of ice at 32" F. has a 
volume^ of .0174 cubic foot, 30,067 cubic inches. 

Lbs. 
One cubic foot of ice weighs 57.135 Ure. 

One cubic foot of ice weighs 57.260 Miller. 

One cubic foot of ice weighs 58.632 Abel & Bloxam. 

Relative volume of ice to water at 32" F., 1.0855. At 
high pressure the melting point of ice is lower than 32% 
being at the rate of .0133 for each additional atmospheric 
pressure. The specific heat of ice is .504, that of water at 
standard temperature being 1. 

Sound ice, two inches thick, will bear the weight of the 
average man; four inches, a man on horseback; six inches, 
cattle and teams with light loads; eight inches, teams with 
heavy loads; ten inches, will sustain a pressure of 1000 
pounds per square foot. The ice must be sound, free from 
shakes, cracks and frozen snow. 

Snow is 10 to 12 times lighter than an equal volume of 
water; that is, one inch of rainfall will make from 10 to 12 
inches of good, clear, crystalline snow. A cubic foot of 
fresh snow, according to the humidity of the atmosphere, 
will weigh from five to twelve pounds. A cubic foot of 
snow moistened and compacted will weigh fifteen to fifty 
pounds. 

Molesworth gives the following relating to snow: 

Specific gravity is 0.0833 

One cubic inch <»f sik^w, =: 0.003 pound. 

One cubic fool ot .snow, = 5.2 pound. 

One pound of snow, z=z 332.6 cubic inches. 

One pound of snow. =i 0.1923 cubic foot. 

One inch snow fall, =0.433 lbs. per s(]. ft. 



116 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

Water in freezing always expands. If it is so confined 
that expansion is impossible, it remains liquid even at tem- 
peratures far below the freezing point; but the instant 
pressure is removed, the water crystallizes into solid ice. 
As there is a constant effort on the part of the water to form 
ice and as a considerable pressure is needed to counter- 
balance its expansive power, the lower the temperature the 
greater this pressure becomes. At a temperature of 30 
degrees Fahrenheit, just two degrees below the freezing 
point, the pressure is equal to 138 tons per square foot. It 
will be seen, then, that when water freezes in a pipe or 
closed vessel, it exerts a pressure of approximately one ton 
per square inch; and this is the destructive agency which 
bursts pipe and tanks. 

Classification of Water. — Waters for domestic uses 
may be divided into two general classes; hard waters and 
soft waters. Hard waters can be either permanently hard, 
temporarily hard, or both permanently and temporarily 
hard. By hardness of water is meant its soap destroying 
or neutralizing power, which is due to the presence of car- 
bonates or sulphates of lime or magnesia. A large degree 
of permanent hardness indicates a bad water. Perma- 
nently hard waters contain sulphates of lime or magnesia in 
solution ; temporarily hard waters contain carbonates of 
lime or magnesia in solution, and both permanently and 
temporarily hard waters contain sulphates and carbonates 
of lime or magnesia in solution. 

Hardness of water is measured in degrees (Clark- 
Wanklyn), and each degree of hardness corresponds to 
one grain of carbonate of lime or magnesia to one English 
gallon of water. Hardness expressed in parts per 100,000 
can be converted to Clark's scale by multiplying the hard- 
ness by .7. The reason for this is Clark's scale gives the 
results in grains per English gallon, and there are 70,000 
grains in an English or imperial gallon. 

Example — How many degrees hardness (Clark) in water tiiat is 20 parts 
hard per 100,000? 

Solution — .7 X 20 = 14 degrees Clark. — Ans/ 



Principles arid Practice of Plumbing 117 

Conversely, hardness expressed in degrees (Clark) can 
be changed to parts per 100,000 by dividing the degrees of 
hardness by .7. 

Example — How many parts of hardness per 100,000 in water that contains 
14 degrees of hardness? 

Solution— 14-^.7 = 20 parts per 100,000.— Ans. 

Hardness expressed in parts per 100,000 can be changed 
to grains per United States gallon by multiplying the hard- 
ness by .584. The reason for this is that a United States 
gallon contains approximately 58,400 grains. Conversely, 
hardness expressed in grains per United States gallon can 
be changed to parts per 100,000 by dividing the grains of 
hardness by .584, or, where great refinement of calculation 
is not required, by the constant .6. 

ExAAU'LE — How many grains of liardness per Ignited States gallon in water 
that contains 20 parts per 100,000? 

Solution — 20 X .584 r= 11.68 grains per gallon. — Ans. 

Example — How many parts of hardness per 100,000 in water that contains 
11.68 grains per United States gallon? 

Solution— 11.68 ^..584 = 20 parts per 100,000.— Ans. 

The manner of determining the degree of hardness in 
water is as follows: Seventy cubic centimeters* of water 
are placed in a clean glass bottle large enough to hold two 
or three times that quantity. A clear solution of soap of 
standard strength is then added, a little at a time, from a 
graduated tube, and the mixture briskly shaken. On some 
waters a slight lather will form at first, which will quickly 
disappear, or if the water is very hard a curd will form. 
More soap should then be added, shaking the bottle after 
each addition until the lather formed is sufliiciently perma- 
nent to stand for five minutes. The number of cubic centi- 
meters of soap solution added, less one, indicates the hard- 
ness of the water in degrees. The one cubic centimeter is 
deducted because even distilled water requires a small quan- 
tity of soap to make it lather. 

Standard Soap Solution. — Standard soap solution is 
of such strength that one cubic centimeter contains sufliicient 

"■'I'alilc I'nr ((tiiv «•!•( iii;r Aiiicri<:iii mimI iiu'liic iiiciisnics in api'*'"*! 'X- 



18 



Principles and Practicer of Plumbing 



soap to exactly neutralize one millogram of dissolved car= 
bonate of lime. It is made by mixing half an ounce of finely 
shredded castile, or mottled soap, with two pints of methyl- 
ated spirits and one pint of distilled water. The mixture 
should be kept at ordinary temperature, and allowed to 
stand for a few hours, occasionally shaking, then passed 
through a filter of blotting paper. Before using the solu- 
tion it should be tested by means of water of known hard- 
ness. In case the solution is too strong, it should be diluted 
with spirits and water until the strength is just right. 

Soft water contains no mineral impurities. Rain water 
is the purest kind of natural soft water. 

The character of water, its corresponding degree of 
hardness and chemical substance causing the hardness, 
rated as equivalent to grains carbonate of lime, may be 
found in Table XXII. 

TABLE XXIL Hardness of Waters 



Character of the A^'ater 






Verj^ soft 1° 

Soft 2' 

Softness decreasing 3° 

Moderately soft i 6° 

Moderatelv hard j S° 

Hard \ I 9° 

Very hard I 12° 

Excessively hard | 16° 

Intolerably hard above this pomt . . . ' 17° 





, 


^^ 


~ c-^ 




-? — a 


-r^ 


" £ ^ 


^ 


v-/' — « 


5--- 


i_; 3; 


= c 


^■t^~Zr 


-n^ 




^5; 


ScS 




O^- 


1.4 


1 


2.8 


2 


4.3 


3 


I S.6 


6 


11.4 


8 ; 


i 13. 





17 


12 


23. 


16 


24. 


17 



X - i^ 



QS^ 



.82 
1^6.- 
2.. 31 
5. 
6.a3 

7.6 
P. 9 

13.4 

14. 



Even the softest of water contains a small proportion 
of lime or magnesia as a rule, and it may be assumed that 
the softest of water is at least one degree hard. 

In limestone regions, such as the upper Mississippi 
Valley, water of 10 degrees hardness is not uncommon, while 
some of the water pumped from the chalk beneath the City 
of London. England, is as hard as 22 degrees Clark, 



Principles and Practice of Plnmhinff 119 

CHAPTER XIII 
SOLVENT POWER OF WATER 



Range of Solvency. — Water is an almost universal 
solvent. Its range is greater than any other known liquid. 
It dissolves to a greater or less extent all minerals, and 
many metals with which it is brought in contact. x\s a 
rule, the solvent power of water increases with its temper- 
ature, but for common salts the solvent power is nearly con- 
stant at all temperatures. Lime salts are more soluble in 
cold than in hot waters, and it is due to this latter fact that 
incrustation of water backs takes place in regions when the 
water supply is hard. In percolating through the earth 
the water dissolves carbonates or sulphates of lime or mag- 
nesia from lime rocks, until the water reaches the point of 
saturation; then, when subjected to heat in a water back 
or heater, the point of saturation of the water is lowered, 
thus liberating some of the lime or magnesia which settles 
upon and becomes baked to the walls of the water back or 
heater. 

The proportion of mineral that can be dissolved by a 
given quantity of water depends upon the nature of the 
mineral, the kind of water and its temperature. The rela- 
tion between soluble minerals and water is absolute. That 
is, at a given temperature a certain quantity of water will 
dissolve a definite quantity of mineral salts; if a quantity 
greater than this be added to the water, the amount in 
excess will settle to the bottom of the vessel. The water 
is then saturated, and the mixture is a saturated solution. 
By increasing or decreasing the temperature of the water, 
as the nature of the mineral requires, a greater quantity 
can be dissolved. 

The greatest quantity of various substances in common 
use that can be dissolved by one imperial gallon of water 
can be found in Table XXIIl. The figures do not indicate 



120 



Principles mid Practice of Plumbing 



the weight of chemical contained in a gollon of saturated 
solution. 

Effect of Waters Upon Metals. — The solvent power 
of water is not confined to minerals alone, but, under favor- 
able conditions, will attack and dissolve metal from water 
pipes or from other metallic surfaces with which it comes 
in contact. The energy with which water attacks metals 

TABLE XXIII. Solubility of Water 

(COLLETT) 



One Imperial GaUon of Pure Water 
can Dissolve of Substance 



At 60 Degrees 
Fahrenheit 



At 212 Degrees 
Fahrenheit 



Alum (potash aliun) 

Aluminum sulphate 

Ammonium oxalate 

Barium chloride 

Barium hj'^drate 

*Calcium carbonate 

Calcium chloride 

Calciiun 

Cak'iimi nitrate 

(Jalcium oxide (lime) 

tCalcium sulphate 

ierrous sulphate 

^Magnesium carbonate 

^Magnesium chloride 

Magnesimn hydrate 

Magnesium oxide 

Magnesium sulphate 

Sodium biborate (borax) 

Sodium carbonate (dr"}) . . . . 
Sodium carbonate (crystals) 

Sodium chloride 

Sodium hydrate 

Sodium h-yposulphite 

Sodium phosphate 

Sodium sulphite. 

Sodium sulphate 



0.95 pounds 
3.3 pounds 
0.45 pounds 
3.5 pounds 
pounds 
grains 
pounds 
grains 
pounds 
grains 
grains 
pounds 
Doubtful 
20.0 pounds 
grains 
grains 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 



0.5 

2.5 

40.0 

93.0 

40.0 

70.0 

161.0 

2.0 



2.0 
1.4 
3.0 
0.4 
1.2 
4.1 
3.5 
6.1 
5.0 
1.2 
2.5 
1.1 



35.7 pounds 
8 . 9 poimds 
4.08 pounds 
6.0 pounds 
1 . pounds 
1 . 5 grains 
Unlimited 

53 . 6 grains 
Unlimited 
40.5 grains 
152 . grains 



17.8 
1.5 

40.0 
2.0 
1.4 

13.0 
5.5 
4.5 

14.0 
4.0 



pounds 

grains 

pounds 

grains 

grains 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 



Unlimited 
20.0 pounds 

10 . poimds 
4.2 pounds 



*Insoluble at about 290 degrees Fahrenheit. fDecomposes at boiler temper- 
ature in presence of alkaline earths or iron. Jlnsolnble at 302 degrees Fahren- 
heit, equal to 70 lbs. steam pressure. 



depends largely upon the character of the water, the nature 
of the metal and the amount of free carbonic acid contained 
in the water. As a rule, soft water attacks and dissolves 
metals to a greater extent than will hard water, although 
there are exceptional cases where permanently hard waters 



PrifU'ipIfs (Hid Practice of Phunhinij 



121 



have been known to attack lead pipes with an energy equal 
to that of soft waters. It is not sufficient that water be 
soft to cause it to attack metals ; there must also be present 
in the water some oxygen and carbonic acid, either free or 
in solution. If either the oxygen or the carbonic acid are 



TABLE XXIV. Lead Found in Drinkino Water 

MST Ol < ITIF> JVM) TOUNS WITH MAXIMIM AMOINTS <>I 1,K\I) 

FOlM> IN SAMPI.KS <>I WATER TAKEN DlKINCi OKDINAKV 

ISK \NI> AFTER STANDINC. IN THE PIPE 



LOCALITY 



T.riid Parts per lOO.OOO 

(.05 parts of lead per 

100,000, dangerous) 



-AniesbiirA' 

Andover 

Attleborough 

Beverly 

Bridgewater 

Brookline 

Cambridge 

Cohasset 

Dedham 

Franklin 

Grafton 

Hyde Park fold wells) 

Hyde Park (^new welLs) 

LawTence 

Lowell (.boulvevard wells'* 

I>DweU (cook and hydraulic wells) 

Marblehead 

Metropolitan supply 

Middleborongh 

Needham 

XevNion 

North Attleborough 

Xonsood 

Webster 

Wellesley . 

Weymouth 

Wobum 



(IJoport Massn.lnisetts r.onnl of Health. lf»00, page 4;K).) 

lacking, the solvent power of the water will be greatly 
reduced. 

Effect (jF Watfk Ui'oN Lfad. — Water cnutaining a 
fixed amount of oxj'gen and a varying amount of carbonic 



I>iirinp 


MXCT 


C>rdiTuu-v 


Standing 


Usc 


in Pipr 


.0029 


0.0043 


.0171 


0.0571 


.1714 


0.1371 


.0257 


0.0314 


.0086 


0.0171 


.0114 


0.0286 


.00S6 


0.0114 


.0086 


0.0086 


.0100 


0.0200 


.0286 


0.1143 


.0229 


0.0457 


.0457 


0.4571 


.0200 


0.0457 


.0371 


0.1829 


.OSOO 


0.4000 


.5143 


0.4(>43 


.oost> 


(L0143 


.0400 


0.1371 


.;M29 


1.1429 


.0171 


0.(H29 


.0714 


0.1714 


.0071 


0.0329 


.0043 


0.1371 


.0200 


0.0571 


.0152 


0.0314 


.0800 


0.2286 


.0229 


0.0^3 



122 



Principles and Practice of Pbnnbing 



acid acts upon lead with an energy proportional to the 
amount of carbonic acid present. The action of Avater upon 
a bright lead surface is much more energetic than upon a 
dull lead surface. Thus, city rain water, stored for 31/2 

months in contact with new and old lead surfaces, was 

TABLE XXV. Lead in Samples of Ground Waters 

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO AVERAGE AMOUNT OF LEAD FOUND WHEN 
WATER IS IN ORDINARY USE 

I PARTS PER 100.0Q(}— .05 PART PER 100,000, DANGEROUS.) 



LOCALITY 



SAMPLES TAKEN 



= > 



Lowell (cook & 

hyd. wells; 

Micldleborough / 

Attleboroiigh 

Newton f 

< 

Avde Park fold) ( 

WeUsi....'. 
Lowell Ox)iilevard/ 

wells) 1 

Grafton J 

Hyde Park (new | 

wells) I 

AVellesley / 

Webster 

Xeedham i 

Dedham 

Brookline 

Bridgewater ;' 

Xorth Attle- j 

borough 

Cohasset ' 



In ordinary use j . 1608 

After standing in pii)e. . i . 2535 



In ordinary iL?e 

After standing in pipe.. 

In ordinary iLse 

After standing in pipe . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe.. 

In ordinary iLse 

After standing in pipe . 

In ordinary use 

After standing^in pipe . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pixie . 

I In ordinary iLse 

j-After standing in pipe . 

In ordinary use 

] After standing in pijie . 

In ordinary use 

'After standing in pipe . 

'In ordinary u«e 

i After standing in pipe . 

In ordinary iLse 

After standing pipe . . . . 

In ordinary use 

-After stancHng in pipe 

In ordinary use 

I After standing in pipe . 



.1549 
.6171 
.0697 
.0905 
.0432 
.0908 
.0400 
.3029 
.0202 
.0861 
.0187 
.0329 
.0172 
.0329 
.0101 
.0219 
.0100 
.0286 
.0091 
.0269 
.0082 
.0150 
0074 
.0197 
.0057 
.0143 
.0049 
.0226 
.0048 
.0043 






\123 

/ 
' 95 

jl79 

J 
I 43 

\ 62 

I 

; 265 
' 32 



98 



76 
' 112 
(230 
i 461 
127 
, 141 



39 



e5 Z. 



<o 



% 






74. 



/4: 



y% 



% 






M 



% 



3-1 
/4 



% 



• 4 



3.287 
4.148 
3.242 
1.187 
3.243 
1.301 
1.912 
2.733 
1.092 
1.689 
2.392 
1.611 
1.149 
1.084 
1.529 
2.411 






3.5 
2.6 
1.7 
2.2 
4.6 
1.5 
3.2 
2.9 
2.3 
0.8 
2.1 
4.1 
4.7 
2.6 
2.9 
6.3 



(Report Massachusetts State Buard of Health, 1900, page 491.) 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



123 



found to contain in suspension and solution the following 
amount of lead: 

*Stored in old lead, 3.65 parts per million 

Stored in new lead, 58.10 parts per million 

The importance of this will be realized when it is 
known that 0.5 part of lead per million is considered by most 
authorities the danger limit. 

At Lowell, Mass.t, the water from a well that caused a 
serious outbreak of lead poisoning was found, upon analysis, 
to be heavily charged with carbonic acid and to contain 2.30 
parts of lead per million. 

Hard waters generally protect lead pipe by depositing 
on the inner surface an insoluble coating. As a rule, the 

TABLE XXVL Lead in Samples of Surface Waters 

.\RR.4N(;KD according to average AiMOUNT OF LEAD FOUND 
WHEN WATER IS IN ORDINARY USE 

(PARTS PER 100,000— .05 PART PER 100,000, DANGEROUS.) 



IXHALITV 



Lawrence . 
WeMTioiith 



/ 



Metropolitan / 

.-upply ^ 

A nf lover , 



Beverl\ . 
('anil)ri(ige. 



SAMPLES TAKEN 



Inordinary use 

,\fter standing in pipe. . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 

In ordinary use 

.\f ter standing in pipe . . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 



Lead 
(Aver- 
age) 



.0543 
.0704 
.0314 
.1167 
.0111 
.0293 
.0108 
.0257 
.0087 
.0147 
.0025 
.0064 



Aver- 
age 
Length 
of Pipe 

(Feet) 



Aver- 
age 
Size 
of Pipe 
(Ins.) 



H 



H 



H 



H 



H 



Free 
C. 0.2 



1.100 
0. 152 
1.105 
0.110 
0.121 
1 225 



Hard- 
ness 



1.6 
0.3 
13 
1.0 
2 3 
') 7 



( Ui-p.irt .\l:i.ssa«lni.sctt.s State Ronrd of Healtli, VMM, i)ai,'(' 4J»1.) 

harder the water, as compared with the free carbonic acid, 
the less effect the water has upon the lead. Ground water 
is generally more energetic than surface water in its action 
upon lead, although surface water is more liable to become 
contaminated with sewage, in which case the resultant 

".Ma.son Watfr Siipiily, pagf .'!DS. 

tMa.ssachusetts State Board of Heallli lJ.|i..it, I'.MKt, page 4Sii. 



124 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



carbonic acid would make it more dangerous than ground 
water. 

An idea of the amount of lead dissolved from lead pipes 
by different kinds of water can be found in Tables XXIV, 
XXV, XXVI. In these tables the quantity of lead dis- 
solved is stated in parts per 100,000 in which amounts .05 
part of lead is considered the danger limit. 

TABLE XXVII. Zinc in Samples of Ground Water 

(PARTS PER 100,000.) 









Average 


Average 


LOCALITY 


vSAMPLES TAKEN 


Zinc 


Length of 


Size of Pipe 






(Average) 


Pipe (Feet) 


(Inches) 


West Berlin f 


In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


1.8469 


\ Galv. Iron 
/ 4,000 




Millbury j 


In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.3084 
.7931 


\ 53 


H 


Newton i 


In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.1254 
.5551 


1 ^'^ 


H 


Marblehead f 


In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.0857 
.4914 


\ 65 


Vs 


Grafton i 


In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.0733 
.3257 


1 117 


% 


Lowell (cook and j 


In ordinary use 




1 Brass 


H 


hvd. wells) 1 


After standing in pipe. . 


.2867 


/ 40 




Welleslej'- j 


In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.0686 
.2257 


1 60 


% 


Fairhaven j 


In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.0527 
. 6686 


I 




Lowell (boulevard / 
wells) \ 


In ordinary use 


.0338 


\ 90 


\y% 


After standing in pipe. . 


. 1522 


1 




Webster j 


In ordinary use 


.0286 


\ Galv. Iron 




1 


After standing in pipe. . 


.3628 


/ 100 


Yi 


Reading j 


In ordinary use 


. 0000 


\ 40 




) 


x\f ter standing in pipe . . 


.0000 


j 




Warren / 


In ordinary use 


.0000 


1 Galv. Iron 




\ 


After standing in pipe. . 


.0000 


J Cistern 





(Report Mu.s.saehusetts Slate Board of IlealUi, 1900, page 405.) 

These tables all show the increased amount of lead dis- 
solved from pipes by water that was standing for some time, 
and indicate the additional protection to health that can be 
obtained by allowing the water in the service pipe to run to 
waste before drawing any for cooking or drinking purposes. 

Effect of Galvanized Pipe Upon Water. — Zinc coat- 
ings on the surface of galvanized iron pipe are attacked and 
dissolved by some waters almost as energetically as is lead 



Princfples and Practice of Plumbing 



125 



pipe. Zinc is also dissolved to a considerable extent from 
brass pipes. At Cwmfelin,* galvanized iron pipe that con- 
ducts water from a spring to the town, a distance of one- 
half mile, was found to change the character of the water 
as shown by the following analysis : 

At Spring At Delivery- 
Free ammonia none 114 

Nitrogen as nitrates .8 none 

Total residue 154.3 270 

Zinc carbonate none 91.6 

TAKLE XXVIII. Zinc in Samples of Surface Water 

(PARTS PER 100.000.) 





1 




Average 


Avcrase 


LOC.VLITV 


SAMPLES TAKEN 


Zinc 


Length of 


Size of Pipe 






(Average) 


Pipe (Keel) 


(, Inches) 


Sheffield f 


In ordinary- use 


.8657 


\ Galv. Iron 
( 246 




1 


After standing iu pipe. . 




• 4 


Palmer I 


In ordinan*- use 

.\fter standing in pipe. . 


.2900 
.4280 


\ 




Be^•erly J 


In ordinary- use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.•2714 


I 1,128 


2 


FaU River | 


In ordinary- use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.0070 
.0103 


{ 49 


H 


Metropolitan ( 
supply \ 


In ordinary use 


.0000 


\ Brass 

/ 92 




After standing in pipe. . 


.0000 


1 



(Report >tassa«.husetts State Board of Health, 1000, page 495.) 

The effects on ground and surface waters that are con- 
ducted through galvanized iron service pipes can be judged 
from the results in Tables XXVII and XXVIII. 



TABLE XXIX. C opper in Samples of Ground Water 



(PARTS PER 100.000.) 



LOCALITY 


SAMPLES TAKEN 


Copper 
(Average) 


Average 

Length of 

Bra.«s Pipe 

(,F"eet) 


Average- 
Size of Pii>c 
(Inches^ 


Wellesley f 

Lowell (boulevard 1 
wells) 1 

Lowell (eook and / 
hyd. wells) \ 


In ordinary iL^e 

After standing in pipe. . 
Inordinary- use — 
After standing in pipe. . 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. . 


.t)2o7 
.02^6 
.0076 
.02:^3 

!0()00 


i (iO 

J 

} " 





•"Cheiuical News" X — X — '8o. 



126 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



To briefly sum up, it may be stated that it is always 
better to determine experimentally the action of water upon 
pipes than to try and predict it from knowledge of the char- 
acter of the water. It is better still to only use pipes that 
are not affected to any appreciable extent by the solvent 
action of any water. If, however, pipes must be used that 
are so affected, then those should be selected, the dissolved 
metals of which are the least injurious to the human system. 

The necessity of using pipes that are not injurious is 
manifest, when it is considered that a water which is per- 
fectly wholesome and non-solvent may be changed at any 
time for a different supply that might energetically attack 
the pipes, or, the character of the water itself might change 
sufficiently to dissolve the metal. 

Copper is also dissolved from brass pipes, as may be 
seen from Tables XXIX and XXX of analysis of ground and 
surface waters drawn from brass service pipes. 

TABLE XXX. Copper in Samples of Surface Water 

(PARTS PER 100.000.) 



LOCALITY 



Maiden 

Metropolitan 

siipph' .... 

LaA^Tence .... 

^^'akefield. . . . 



SAMPLES TAKEN 



In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. 

In ordinary use 

After standing in pipe. 



Copper 
(Average) 



.0000 
.0470 
.0050 
.0000 
.(X)00 
.0000 

.0000 



Average 

Length of 

Brass Pipe 

fFeet) 



20 

92 

10 

6 



Average 

Size of Pipe 

(Inches) 



3-; 

/4 



The effect of some water upon different metals of which 
water pipes are made or coated, and the resultant effect 
upon the health of those drinking the waters are shown in 
Table XXXI. 

The action of water upon galvanized iron pipes is 
almost as energetic as upon lead pipes, and under suitable 
conditions will dissolve equal amounts of metal from each. 
However, the effect of the zinc upon the health is not dan- 
gerous but only injurious, because zinc is not a cumulative 



Principles and Practice of Plumhing 
TABLE XXXI. Effect of Metals on Health 



127 



Kind of Pipe 


Action of Water 


Effect upon People 


Lead pipe 


Dissolves lead 


Dangerous 
No effect 
Injurious 
No effect 


'I'in or tin lined lead 

( ialvanized iron 


No effect 

Dissolves zinc 


'V\\\ lined iron 


No effect 

Slightly dissolves copper and zinc. . . 

Rusts and dissolves 

No effect 

No effect 

No effect 

Dissolves C'opi)er Slighth' 


lirass pipe 


Objectionable 
Objectionable 
No effect 
No effect 
No effect 
No effect 


•Plain iron 


Alununiun 

Nickel 

Benedict Nickel 

( "opper 



♦Dissolved iron or rust in small quantities is not injurious to health, but 
'4 grain of iron per gallon of water imparts an objectionable taste to the water 
ln'sides making it unfit for washing and for most manufacturing purposes. 

poison, and so long as the initial dose is not sufficient to 
cause illness or death, the effect is soon thrown off without 
apparent injury. Lead, on the contrary, even when taken 
in small doses, remains in the system until sufficient poison 
accumulates to cause serious illness or death, or if the initial 
dose is of sufficient strength the effect may be immediately 
fatal. 

Lead pipes are used for water supply in building. Sheet 
lead also is used for lining water tanks. Within the past 
few years, however, a rational decrease in the use of lead 
supply pipes and lead lined tanks is noticeable. Galvanized 
iron pipes, which are cheaper and better in every way, are 
fast supplanting lead pipes, and when perfect security from 
metal poisoning is desired, Benedict nickel seamless tubing, 
tin-lined lead or tin-lined iron pipes may be used. From a 
hygienic standpoint, Benedict nickel and tin-lined pipes are 
about equal, but when superior finish is desired the Benedict 
nickel tubing will be found the more satisfactory. In 
appearance it is equal to nickel-plated brass pipe, and in all 
other respects superior to it. 

Absorption of Gases by Water. — Water has a certain 
affinity for most gases. This affinity is more pronounced 
for some gases than for others; for instance, at atmospheric 
pressure and at ordinary temperatures, pure water will 
absorb 4 per cent, of its own volume of air, 4 per cent, of its 



128 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

volume of sulfureted hydrogen, or 100 per cent, of its 
volume of carbonic acid gas. By increasing the pressure on 
the water its capacity for absorption is increased in direct 
proportion. That is, if the pressure be increased to two 
atmospheres, the temperature remaining unchanged, pure 
water will absorb 8 per cent, of its own volume of air, 8 per 
cent, of its volume of sulfureted hydrogen or 200 per cent, 
of its volume of carbonic acid gas. 

Heating water lessens its capacity for absorption in 
direct proportion to the amount of heat applied. The rela- 
tive volume of gas absorbed is in all cases directly as the 
pressure and inversely as the temperature. Thus, if the 
pressure be increased it will absorb more gas, and if it be 
heated it will absorb correspondingly less gas. Water is 
saturated when it has in solution all the gas it can hold. If 
water is saturated with gas and the pressure is then 
increased or the temperature lowered, the capacity of the 
water to hold gas will be increased and it will absorb still 
more. If water is saturated with gas and the pressure is 
reduced or its temperature raised, the capacity of the water 
to hold gas will be reduced and some will be liberated. 

It is due to the fact that increasing the pressure of 
water increases its capacity to absorb gases that necessi- 
tates frequent recharging of air chambers in pipe systems. 
Water usually enters a supply system from a pump or reser- 
voir at atmospheric pressure, saturated with air. As the 
water becomes compressed, however, its capacity to absorb 
air is increased, hence, when passing an air chamber the 
water absorbs air from the chamber, which in turn grad- 
ually fills with water. 

The fact that decrease of pressure liberates air from 
saturated waters determines the best place in a system to 
locate air chambers. When a faucet is opened the pressure 
of water at that point is considerably reduced ; furthermore, 
in passing through the system of piping within the building 
the water has become slightly warmed; hence, if an air 
chamber is located immediately above the faucet, gases lib- 
erated from the water will rise into the air chamber and 
keep it charged. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 129 

CHAPTER XIV 

HYDRODYNAMICS 



HYDROSTATICS 



Laws of Hydraulic Pressure 

The Hydraulic Gradient. — The surface of water at 
rest is always level. If two or more vessels are connected 
together near their bottoms and water is poured into one 
vessel, it will flow through the connecting pipes to the sev- 
eral vessels until the surface of water in all of them is at the 
same level. 

If water in the system of piping, Fig. 62, be at rest, it 
will stand in all of the branches open to the atmosphere at 
the top at the same level (/ as the water in the tank. This 
lined is called the hydrostatic gradient. If the cock b be 
now opened the water in the several branches will fall to 
the dotted line c drawn from the surface of the water in the 
tank to the outlet of the cock. This line is known as the 
hydraulic gradie)it, and its distance above a pressure main 
determines the available pressure head at that point, when 
water is flowing through the pipe. It should be noticed that 
the pressure head differs from the hydrostatic head; the 
latter is equal to the vertical distance from the water pipe 
to the hydrostatic gradient d, while the pressure head is 
equal to only the vertical distance from the water pipe to the 
hydraulic gradient c. When water from one tank or reser- 
voir discharges into another tank or reservoir at a lower 
level, the hydrostatic gradient becomes an imaginary line 
drawn from the surface of water in the upper tank or 
reservoir to the surface of water in the lower one. An 
open conduit between two such reservoirs will conduct water 
from the higher to the lower one without overflowing the 
conduit, provided the conduit follows the line of the 
hydraulic gradient and at no point rises above nor dips below 
it. When running siphon pipes oj- other closed conduits 
from a reservoir or other source of water supply to a build- 



130 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



ing, care should be taken to keep the pipe below the 
hydraulic gradient. When, however, it is impracticable to 
do so, a relief valve or open vent should be provided at the 
highest point of the line where it rises above the hydraulic 
grade. If means are not provided to permit the escape of 
air from the pipe, it will accumulate at this point until it 
fills the bend of the pipe and by forming an air lock might 
completely stop the flow of water. If the flow of water is 
not completely stopped, other important changes will result ; 
if a vacuum gauge is attached to the pipe at any point 
where it rises above the hydraulic gradient it will show a 
partial vacuum ; this vacuum will cause air to collect at the 
highest point in the pipe and the flow of water will become 

broken until 
finally the pipe 
will be filled only 
to the point 
where it rises 
above the hy- 
draulic gradient 
and will dis- 
charge at this 
point as though 
discharging into 
the air. From 
the highest point 
to the outlet, the pipe will be only partly filled and will act as 
a flume or channel to carry oft' the water. 

Pressure of Water. — The unit of water pressure is the 
pound per square inch. The pressure exerted by water is 
due to its weight and is determined by the height of the 
column of water. For instance, if the pressure exerted by 
a force pump is 50 pounds per square inch it will balance a 
column of water about 115 feet high. This pressure, there- 
fore, is equivalent to a head of water 115 feet deep. Head 
of water at a given point is the vertical distance between that 
point and the level of the surface of the water. In meas- 
uring the depth or static head of water, the vertical distance 
from the hydrostatic gradient to the point of consideration 




Ficr. (\2 
Plydraiilio Oradioiit 



Principles and Practice of Plnmbing 131 

is always taken regardless of lateral or horizontal distaiices 
I'rom the point. 

The weight of a column of water one inch square and 
12 inches high equals .434 pound. It is just 1/144 the 
weight of one cubic foot of water which has the same depth 
of column but 144 times the area. When the height of a 
column of water is known, its pressure in pounds per square 
inch can be determined by multiplying the height in feet by 
.434*, the weight of one foot of water 1 inch square. 

ExAMPLK — \^ hat is ilio pressure per sijuare iruli at the l)ase of a cdluniii 
of water 200 feet liigh? 

Solution — 200 X -434 = 86.8 pounds per sijuare inch. 

When the pressure is known the height or head of a 
column of water can be found bj' multiplying the pressure 
in pounds by 2.3, the height of a column of water weighing 
one pound. 

E\A^rri,i:- -Wliat inu:-t he the heijiht ol a cohunn <>l Avater to exert a 
pressure of 86.8 pMimds p«T s(piarc ineh.'' 

SuniTioN 86.8 X 2.3 — 199.61 feet head. 

The constants .434 aiul 2.3 althougli used in piactice 
are not exactly correct, as can be seen by comparing the 
two foregoing examples. 

Heads and corresponding i)ressures of water in iK)unds 
per s(iuare inch for every foot in height to 240 feet can be 
found in Table XXXII. 

Pascal's Law of Pressure. — Water confined in a ves- 
sel and subjected to a pressure, transmits the pressure with 
the same intensity in all directions. This law was first dis- 
covered by Pascal, and is expressed as follows : 'The press- 
ure per unit of area exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid 
is transmitted undiminished in all directions, and acts with 
the same force upon all surfaces, in a direction at right 
angles to the surfaces." 

Measuring Pressure. — The pressure of water in closed 
systems is indicated by a i)i'L'ssure gauge. The construction 

*Tlie «-<>iistiiiiL .t.'".! will lie fdiiiKl sii(li<i(Mil ly a<<iir;ilc for iiutsl calinJal iniis, 
jiud when an approximation only is required tlio eonstant .4 will sniliee. 



lo2 Principles cnul Practice of Plumbiufj 

TABLE XXXII. Heads and Pressures of Water 





Pressure 




Pressure 




Pressure 




Pressure 




Pressure 


Feet 
Head 


per Sq. 
Inch 


Feet 
Head 

1 


per Sq. 
Inch 


Feet 
Head 


per Sq. 
Inch 


Feet 
Head 


per 5ki. 
Inch 


Feet 
Head 


per Sq. 
Inch 


1 


0.43 


40 


21.22 


97 


42.01 


145 


62.81 


193 


8:3. 60 


2 


0.86 


.50 


21. a5 


98 


42.45 


146 


63.24 


194 


84.03 


3 


1.30 


51 


22.09 


99 


42.88 


147 


63.67 


195 


84.47 


4 


1.73 


.52 


22.52 


100 


43.31 


148 


64.10 


196 


84.90 


5 


2.16 


53 


22.95 


101 


43.75 


149 


64.. 54 


197 


85.33 


6 


2.59 


54 


23.39 


102 


44.18 


150 


64.97 


198 


85.76 


7 


3.03 


55 


23.82 


103 


44.61 


151 


6.5.40 


199 


86.20 


8 


3.46 


56 


24.26 


104 


45.05 


152 


65.84 


200 


86.63 





3.89 


57 


24.69 


105 


4.5.48 


153 


66.27 


201 


87.07 


10 


4.33 


58 


25.12 


106 


45.91 


1.54 


66.70 


202 


87.. 50 


11 


4.76 


59 


25.. 55 


107 


46. 34 


155 


67.14 


203 


87.93 


12 


5.20 


60 


25.99 


108 


46.78 


156 


67.57 


204 


88.36 


13 


5.63 


61 


26.42 


109 


47.21 


1.57 


68.00 


205 


88.80 


14 


6.06 


62 


26.89 


110 


47.64 


158 


68.43 


206 


89.23 


15 


6.49 


63 


27.29 


111 


48.08 


159 


68.87 


207 


89.66 


16 


6.93 


e4 


27.72 


112 


48.51 


160 


69.31 


208 


90.10 


17 


7.36 


C-b 


28.15 


113 


48.94 


161 


69.74 


209 


90. 53 


18 


7.79 


66 


28.58 


114 


49.38 


162 


70.17 


210 


90.96 


19 


8.22 


67 


29.02 


115 


49.81 


163 


70.61 


211 


91.. 39 


20 


8.66 


68 


29.45 


116 


50.24 


164 


71.04 


212 


91.83 


21 


9.09 


69 


29.88 


117 


50.68 


165 


71.47 


213 


92.26 


22 


9.53 


70 


30.32 


118 


51.11 


166 


71.91 


214 


92.69 


23 


9.96 


71 


30. 75 


119 


51 . .54 


167 


72.. 34 


215 


93.13 


24 


10.39 


72 


31.18 


120 


51.98 


168 


72.77 


216 


93. 50 


25 


10.82 


73 


31.62 


121 


52.41 


169 


73.20 


217 


93.99 


26 


11.26 


74 


.32.05 


122 


52.84 


170 


73.64 


218 


94.43 


27 


11.69 


; ^^ 


32.48 


123 


53.28 


171 


74.07 


219 


94. SB 


2^ 


12.12 


76 


32.92 


124 


53.71 


172 


74. 50 


220 


95.. 30 


29 


12.55 


77 


.33.35 


125 


54.15 


173 


74.94 


221 


95.73 


30 


12.99 


78 


33.78 


126 


54.. 58 


174 


75.37 


222 


96.16 


31 


13.42 


79 


.34.21 


127 


.55.01 


175 


75. SO 


223 


96.(5(j 


32 


13.86 


80 


.34.65 


12S 


.55.44 


176 


76.23 


224 


97.03 


33 


14.29 


81 


35.08 


129 


.55.88 


177 


76.67 


225 


97.46 


34 


14.72 


! 82 


35.52 


130 


56.31 


178 


77.10 


226 


97.90 


3.3 


15. 16 


1 83 


.35.95 


1.31 


56.74 


179 


77.. 53 


227 


9S..33 


30 


15.59 


84 


.36.. 39 


1.32 


57.18 


180 


77.97 


22S 


9S.76 




16.02 


85 


36.82 


133 


57.61 


181 


78.40 


229 


99.20 


38 


16.45 


86 


37.25 


134 


58.04 


182 


78.84 


230 


99.63 


39 


16.89 


87 


37.68 


135 


.58.48 


183 


79.27 


231 


100.06 


40 


17.32 


88 


.38.12 


1.36 


58.91 


184 


79.70 


2.32 


100.49 


41 


17.75 


89 


38.. 55 


137 


59.34 


185 


80.14 


23.3 


100.93 


42 


18.19 


90 


38.98 


138 


59.77 


186 


80.57 


234 


101.36 


43 


18.62 


91 


39.42 


1.39 


60.21 


187 


81.00 


235 


101.79 


44 


19.05 


92 


39.85 


140 


60.64 


188 


81.43 


236 


102.23 


45 


19.49 


93 


40.28 


141 


61.07 


189 


81.87 


237 


102.00 


46 


19.92 


94 


40.72 


142 


61.51 


190 


82.30 


2as 


103.09 


47 


20.35 


95 


41.15 


143 


61.94 


191 


82.73 


2.39 


103.53 


48 


20.79 


PR 


41.58 


144 


62 37 


192 


.S:3.17 


1 240 


103.96 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



133 



of a pressure gauge is shown in Fig. 63. In this illustra- 
tion the dial face is removed to show the interior construc- 
tion. A bent tube a, of elliptical cross-section, made of 
metal of the required elasticity, has its bottom end firmly 
attached to the gauge case, and its upper end left free to 
move. To the upper end is at- 
tached a lever b, which is so con- 
nected to a pointer in front of a 
graduated index dial that any 
movement of the tube will be indi- 
cated by the pointer. 

The principle of its operation 
is as follows: If a bent tube of 
elliptical cross section be subjected 
to an internal pressure, the force 
exerted will tend to straighten the 
tube. This is due to the fact that a 
force exerted within a tube of elliptical cross section tends 
to make it take a circular form ; to do so, the inner arc of 
the bent tube must lengthen and the outer arc shorten and 
the combined effort will straighten the tube in direct propor- 
tion to the pressure exerted. The straightening of the tube 
imparts a movement to the register hand which indicates 
on the face of the gauge the intensity of the pressure. 




I'n- 






134 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XV 
FLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPES 



Friction in Pipes.— The flow of water through pipes 
is accelerated by gravity and retarded by friction. If it 
were not for tiie frictional resistance in pipes, water would 
flow through them with a velocity equal to eight times the 
scjuare root of the head. As it is, the roughness of the 
interior walls, the bends and branch fittings in a system of 
piping offer so much frictional resistance that the actual 
mean velocity is but a fraction of the theoretical velocity. 

The pressure head at any point is less than that due to 
the hydrostatic head. This difference between the hydro- 
static head and the pressure head is knowm as loss of head, 
and is greater the smaller the pipe or the greater the veloc- 
ity of flow. The loss of head is due to three causes — loss 
of head due to entry, loss of head due to bends, and loss of 
head due to the length and area of the pipe. 

The Contracted Vein. — The flow of water through a 
circular aperture in a thin plate, Fig. 64, is contracted in 
size a short distance outside of the plate to .615 the area 
of the aperture, but expands again to the full size of the 
opening. The point of greatest contraction is at a distance 
from the plate equal to about one-half the diameter of the 
aperture. 

In consequence of this contraction, the velocity of flow 
is slightly reduced from the theoretical velocity and the 
quantity discharged is greatly reduced. This contraction 
is known as the contracted vein. 

When the aperture is through a plate of considerable 
thickness or through a tube the length of which is not less 
than twice the diameter of the pipe, the contraction is still 
found to occur, but to a less extent than in the former case; 
the vein being contracted, as shown in Fig. 65, to only .8 
of the theoretical area due to head and aperture. 

Loss due to the contracted entrance of water from a 
tank or cylinder into the end of a pipe, as commonly found 
in practice, must be taken then as .2 the quantity that 



Priticiplcs (iitd Prdcticc of Plfunbin<j 



135 




("oiitractrd \v'\n 



slioukl pass. This loss is known as loss oj' head due to 
entry and is considered separate from the loss due to fric- 
tion in long pipes, loss for bends, branches, etc., and should 
be added thereto. 

The actual loss of head due to entry can be reduced to 
a quantity too small to be considered by enlarging the en- 
trance to the pipe and making it 
cone shaped, as in Fig. 66. The 
cone should have a length a, equal 
to one-half the diameter of the 
pipe, and a radius b, equal to 1.22 
diameters of the pipe. Any greater 
enlargement of the opening will 
deduct but little from the loss of 
head. If the ends of thick pipes 
or pipes of small diameter which 
are relatively thick are reamed with a reamer, the length 
of which is just twice the base, enough metal will be re- 
moved to give almost the best form of contracted vein. 

When an unreamed pipe projects a short distance in- 
side of a tank the loss of head due 
to entry is greater than when the 
pipe finishes Hush with the inside 
of the tank. This loss of head has 
been found by experiment to be 
over .3 of the whole flow, thus de- 
creasing it one-tenth more than a 
pipe that finishes flush with the in- 
side of a tank. 

Loss of head due to entry can 
be determined by the formula : 

1=0- — When 1 zn loss of Iliad io feet, v ::= velocity of flow in feet per 
2g 

second, g=r 32.16, acceleration due to {gravity, c ^ coefficient depending on 
shape of the pipe inlet. 

For ordinary calculations the value of c may be taken 
as .5. 

ExAMi'LE— -What is till- l(i>s of Iwad Auv. to entry in a pipe when tlie 
velocity of flow is 8 Ut-l p«r sec dikI .'' 







Fip. (>o 

Water Klowinp Tliroiiffli 
Sliort Tube 



^ 1 r 64 

(A.IVZ 



V>7 fret. Answrr 



136 



Principles and Practice of Plmnhing 






:i I 






Fig. GG 
Cone Shaped Enti\v to Pipe 



Loss OF He.aj) in Bends. — The loss of head, due to 
bends in a pipe, depends upon three factors. First, loss 
due to change of direction of the water in the pipe ; second, 
loss from friction as in an ordinary straight length of pipe ; 
third, loss due to enlargements or contractions in the bend, 
such as are formed when the unreamed ends of pipe are 
screwed into ordinary elbows. 

The second and third losses also apply to couplings and 

tees, but the loss is not the same 
as for bends of equal diameters. 
The loss of head for change of 
direction differs with the angle 
and with the radius of the bend. 
That is, there is less loss for 
change of direction in a forty-five 
degree bend than in a ninety-de- 
gree bend, and the loss is greater 
in a bend of one diameter radius 
than in one with a radius of two diameters. The loss in a 
ninety degree bend with a radius of five or more diameters 
and uniform smooth interior bore is no greater than in an 
equal length of straight pipe. In other words, there is 
practically no loss for change of direction in a bend of 
greater radius than 5 diameters. 

The head lost in a ninety degree 
bend of less than 5 inch diameter 
and of the radius commonly found 
in practice, radius=diameter, with 
square unreamed ends of pipe 
screwed into the fitting, as shown in 
Fig. 67, is found by experiment to 
be five times as great as in bends, 
which the pipes have reamed ends. 

The friction loss in bends having reamed pipes screwed 
therein, is given in Table XXXIII for various sizes of pipe. 
It will be observed that the larger the size of the pipe, the 
greater the equivalent length of pipe the friction in the 
bend equals. In the experiments from which these tables 
were derived, the ends of the pipes were reamed and filed 




Fig. 67 
Friction in Beufl.'« 



Principles a}i(I Practice of Plumbing 



137 



out to such an extent that there was practically no decrease 
of diameter at these points. 

TABLE XXXIII. Friction in Pipe Bends 



Diameter of Bend 
in Inches 


Friction in the bend is equal 

to the friction in number of 

feet of straight pipe hsted 


Friction in the bend equals 

the friction in corresponding 

sizes of straight pipe of the 

following lengths 


5 

4 

3 
o 

1?4 

1 


20 feet of straight pipe 
15 feet of straight pipe 
9 feet of straight pipe 
5 feet of straight pipe 
3 ft. 3 in. of straight pipe 
2 ft. 6 in. of straight pipe 
1 ft. in. of straight pipe 


48* diameters of fitting 
45 diameters of fitting 
36 diameters of fitting 
30 diameters of fitting 
26 diameters of fitting 
24 diameters of fitting 
18 diameters of fitting 



•Thus. IS diameters of 1 inch pipe equals IS inches of straight pipe. 

For use in practice the value given in Table XXXIV 
may be taken as the approximate ratios between the fric- 
tion of ninety degree bends and other fittings of the same 
size. 

TABLE XXXIV. Friction of Fittings 



Kind of Fitting 



Couphng 

45° elbow 

Open return bend (open pattern) 

Tee fitting 

Ciate valve 

('iU>l)e valve 



Number of 90° bends it is equal to in 
frictional resistance 



One-tenth of 90° bend. About twice the 
friction of corresponding length of straight 
pipe. 

One-half the friction of a S0° bend. 

Same as 90° bend. 

Equals friction in two 90° bends. 

One-half the friction of a 90° bend. 

Equals friction in twelve 90° bends. 



In pipes of larger diameter than 5 inches, these ratios 
would hold true, but the number of diameters of straight 
pipe a fitting would equal in frictional resistance would 
increase in proportion and can be found by interpolation. 

The loss of head in small fittings when the ends of the 
pipe screwed into the fitting are reamed, as shown in Fig. 
68, is found by experiment to be less by about five times as 
when the pipe ends are not reamed. For instance, in a 
1 inch ninety degree bend, with reamed pipe ends, in which 

Note: Tables XXXIII and XXXIV basrd on e.xperiments made hy Pro- 
f»>s84»r V. K. Geisule. i<ehool of Architecture. Austin, Te.\as. 



138 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

the friction is equal to friction in a pii)e of a length of 18 

diameters, this loss of head would be divided into : 

Loss of head doe to change in direction 12 diameters 

Lo^ of head doe to eolaxggBEiQit of the bend. 4 diameters 

Loss of head hrom £rieEi«m doe to lenarth of fittins '1 diameters 



Total 18 Pamelas 

In a bend having unreamed pipe ends, the friction 

^^— -— would be about 5 times as great, 

.-v-"'"^^^^^^^^^ or equal to 5 X 18 = 90 diameters 
"'^^^^^^^^ffi. of the pipe, 

^^Iri' The loss of head in a bend of 

i- live or more diameter radius, 

with flush interior joints, Fig. 69, 
is equal to the loss of head in a 
length of pipe four diameters of 
the fitting. This is compara- 



Fig. 68 
mbow Witli Eeamed Pipes 



tively shown as follows : 

Loss of head due to change of direction. . . . 
Loss of head doe to odsE^eznait of die bend. . 
Loss of head £raoi &ietifln doe to length of pipe 

Total 



diameters 
dfiameters 
4 £aiDet»s 




From the foregoing it will be seen that the least possi- 
ble head is consumed by using fittings of 
large radius with flush joints. That when 
common fittings are used the loss can be 
reduced to one-fifth by reaming* the ends 
of the pipe with a triangular-shaped 
reamer, the length of which is just double 
the base. 

The values for friction loss in fittings 
given in the preceding tables are relative 
and for l»w velocities, not over 1 foot per 
second. With an increase in velocity, how- 
ever, there is an increase in frictional re- 
sistance, so for greater velocities the 
friction will have to be approximated by 
calculation. 







Fig. 6& 

Frietton in 
Flnsh Fittins 



PriNciples a)i(J Practice of Plumbing 



139 



The loss of head in feet due to bends can be calculated 
by the formula : 

h =1 n in which h =r head lost in feet, v = velocity in feet per second, 

}! zr: 32.16 acceleration due to gravity, n = a coefficient for the bend. 

The value of coefficient n depends upon the ratio betv^een the radius r of 
the pipe and the radius R of the bend. Table XXXV gives values of n corre- 
sponding to various values of the ratio . 

R 

Example — What will be the loss of head in a column of water flowing with 
a velocity of 8 feet per second through a 4-inch bend that has a radius R of 
4 inches? 

Solution — The radius r of a 4-inch bend = 2 inches, therefore, R which 
is 4 inches will = 2r, which gives for n the value .29. Substituting values in 

the formula then gives, h =: .29 X = -287 foot. Answer. 

64.32 

TABLE XXXV. Values of Coefficient N 



r 
R~ 


R = r 


.•R = 1.12r 


R = 1.2Sr 


R = 1.4r 


R = 1.6r 


R=2r 


R = 2.5r 


R = 3.3r 


R = 5r 


n 


1.98 


1.41 


.98 


.6(5 


.44 


.29 


.21 


.16 


.14 



Loss OF Head in Straight Pipes. — Loss of head in 
straight pipes is caused entirely by the frictional resistance 
of the walls of the pipes ; the rougher the walls, the greater 
the amount of frictional resistance offered to the flow. 
Frictional resistance in pipes may be summed up in three 
general laws, viz. : 

1. Frictional resistance in a pipe varies directly as 
the length of the pipe. That is, the total amount of friction 
offered in a pipe 100 feet long is twice as much as in a pipe 
50 feet long, of equal diameter and smoothness, and one- 
half as much as in a pipe 200 feet long. 

2. Friction varies inversely as the diameter of the 
pipes. That is, in a pipe 2 inches in diameter the frictional 
resistance is proportionately less by one-half than in a 
pipe 1 inch in diameter. The reason is that frictional re- 
sistance is in direct proportion to the area of the surface of 
water and walls of pipe in contact. This surface is known 
as the wetted perimeter, and in a pipe 2 inches in diameter 
js but twice as great as the surface in a 1 inch pipe, while 



140 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



the cross sectional area of the 2 inch pipe, it will be remem- 
bered, is 4 times as great as that of a 1 inch pipe. 

This is well illustrated in Fig. 70. In the four 1 inch 
pipes, a, b, c, d, the length of the wetted perimeter is just 
13.16 inches. If the four 1-inch pipes be now converted 
into one 2-inch pipe by removing the sections marked with 
dotted lines and rolling the heavy lined sections back to e, 
the wetted perimeter will be reduced to 6.49 inches, or about 
one-half the length of the combined perimeters of the four 
1-inch pipes, while the sectional area remains unchanged. 
3. Friction varies almost as the square of the velocity 
and is entirely independent of press- 
ure. That is, if the velocity of flow 
of water in a pipe is doubled, the 
frictional resistance will be quad- 
rupled, while if the initial velocity is 
reduced to one-half, the frictional re- 
sistance will be decreased to one- 
quarter, regardless of the intensity 
of pressure in the pipe. 

Loss of head due to friction in 
pipes can be determined by the formula: 

Iv 

h = f , -in which h = loss of head in feet, f = coefficient for size and rougli- 

d2g 
ness of pipe, 1 = length of pipe in feet, v ::= velocity in feet per second, 
d =r diameter of pipe in feet, g = 32.16 acceleration due to gravity. 

The value of coefficient / for different sizes of pipes 




Fig. 70 
AVettecl Perimeter of Pipes 



TABLE XXXVI. Values of Coefficient / 

(MEKKIMAN) 



Diameter 
of Pipe in 


Velocity of Feet per Second 


Ft. 


In. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


6 


10 


15 


.05 


Vs 


.047 


.041 


.037 


.034 


.031 


.029 


.028 


.1 


IM 


.038 


.032 


.030 


.028 


.026 


.024 


.023 


.25 


3 


.032 


.028 


. 026 


.025 


.024 


.022 


.021 


.5 


6 


.028 


.026 


.025 


.023 


.022 


.021 


.019 


.75 


9 


.026 


.025 


.024 


.022 


.021 


.019 


.018 


1. 


12 


.025 


.024 


.023 


.022 


. 020 


.018 


.017 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 141 

and with different velocities of flow can be found in Table 
XXXVI. 

Example — What is the loss of head due to frii tion in a 3-in( h pipe 600 
feet long, if the mean velocity of flow is 4 feet ptM- si-cond? 

Soi.iTiON — From the tahle it is found tiiat the vahie td / im a "Miu li pi|>e 
with a velo<-ity id 4 feet per second is .02.'>; then, suh^tiliitinj! ^Mven values in 
the formula: 

600 X 16 

h = .025 X — 15 feet.— Answer. 

.25 X 64.32 

Table XXXVII gives the loss of head in pounds per 
square inch for each 100 feet of length in different sizes of 
clean pipes discharging given quantities of water per minute. 

If the loss of head is desired for the same diameters of 
pipe but for different lengths than those given in the table, 
when discharging the given quantities of water, it can be 
found by multiplying the loss of head by the ratio of the 
length of pipe. For instance, according to the table there 
is a loss of head of 13 pounds in a %-inch pipe when dis- 
charging 10 gallons of water per minute, and, as friction, 
hence loss of head, is in direct proportion to the length of 
a pipe, velocity and diameter remaining the same, it follows 
that in a %-inch pipe 200 feet long, discharging 10 gallons 
of water per minute, the loss of head would be 26 pounds, 
or double that in 100 feet of pipe. Likewise, in a pipe of 
equal diameter but only 50 feet long, discharging 10 gallons 
of water per minute, the loss of head would be 6.5 pounds, 
or one-half that of 100 feet of pipe. 

If the loss of head expressed in pounds is desired in 
feet, it can be found by multiplying the loss of head in 
pounds by 2.3. The size of pipes and quantity of discharge 
being given in this table, the velocity of flow can be found 
by dividing the quantity by the area of the pipe. 

Velocity of Flow. — When water flows through a pipe 
of uniform cross section, the quantity of water passing any 
point in a given interval of time depends upon the velocity 
with which the water flows and the area of cross section of 
the pipe. It is evident that the quantity of water will equal 
a column whose cross section is the area of the pipe and 
whose length is equal to the velocity. 



142 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 






•2 

o 



o 
o 



S3 
S3 
O 



n I— I 

















iC 


oo 


ooc 

(N!MCC 


CO -* T} 


ooo ooo ooo ooc 

'0 t^ O M LQ t> O 'O O O O '!" 
1-1 i-<,-(T-i (MfNCO CO-*Tf 


o 
o 


t-i 

o 


spunoj ui 






















•o 

■o 

•d 


o 

r-l 

d 


■ l>COt^ OOrH CO 
r-, (MCO OCOOO o> 

• ooo odo o 


puoosg J3d 






















■ CO 

■ I-l 


•o 


• W ■* O 1> Tt< r-l 

c^ 00 ^ (O o 1-1 t> 

CD 

• (M OJ CO CO rti lO 

o 


4 


spunoj UI 
ssoq uopoi'jjj 




















05 -co 

o -co 
• d ■ d 


■CD 

•d 


■ (M Oi CD O CO r-l CO 

• (M C/w CO O t^ O ■* 

• 1-1 1-1 cq CO Tfi CD I> 


puooag jad 
pa^ ui ArjpopA 




















00 -o 

• (M -IQ 

• 1-i • <m' 


•CO 

•00 
CO 


^(3icD -* 
• r-t CO CD O) <M O 00 

■ >OCDl> OOOi-H !M 

1-1 1—1 T-l 


.S 

CO 


spunoj ui 
sscrj uopouj 










O 
1— ( 

d 








lO-^rH Ol'O'O (MO 
• C01>C0 C200CO Ot-(M (MOO 00 

OO'-I i-((MCO 0»i-i 0(35 O 
!-< i-li-i<M CO 


puoDag J3d 
:>aa^ ui Ar^popA 










CO 

T-l 








• I>OTf r^r-l ^ 00 

• (M'^O CD00<35 OCOCD a 
■ (M ct) ■* >o CD t^ o 1-1 CO ir 


ooo <N 

r-lM C-l 


spunoj UI 
ssoq uoi:)ou j^ 










T— 1 

(M 

d 








i-iOO C50CD OC'CDCD 
tXjOC(N 00OTt< Tt<CDO 

• Oi-ICO Tj<lx35 IM(3:00 
i-ii-i (M 










puooag jad 
:>aaj[ ut A:jpo]ay\^ 










CO 

o 
1—1 








CDOCO CDO 
• (MC35 rHOO^ 1-1COCD 

CO-^CD Oao^T-i COCDO 












spunoj ut 
ssoq uojrjoij j; 




iM 


<M 

-* 

o 


CI 

d 


o 

CD 


-t<(McD 

"^CO^ (n<Mi-i O 

(MOO -T* r-^ 00 t-^ 
1-1 (M (>i CO 














puooag jad 
:>aa j ui A:>popA 




(M 

o 

1-H 


o 


o 
o 

CO 


O 
"* 


r-ICD 

1-1 CDC^ OOCO 1-1 "f 
O I> O (M O l> O 

1-1 t-H r-l r-H (M 














o 
"T 


spunoj UI 
ssoq uoipijj 


c^t^t^ oc-no 'Qc^ic 

T-H -ti OJ COOt^- O "Oi- 

ooo T-<Mco >o<r>oc 


• OTflO 

0(M (35 

i—oqco 






















puoDag aad 
:)aa^ ui A:)]3opA 


i-i(MO0 OOTt^'O Ocoiv OC 
OJOOt^ CDIO-* COC<(.-i OOCM 

Ot-I(N CC^iQ ot^co ocooo 






















j3 

o 

I-H 


spunoj UI 
ssoq uoipia^tj 


.-i Id 00 t^ o »o 

COOCO O-^T-i rt^T-iC^l Ci--* 

OrHIN '^COOS (NCDO -*CD 
i-l ^ 04 (N lO 






















piiooag jad 
:)aaj ui A:)popA 


—1 T-< C-l Ol CO M< -* 

COOC5 (MO 00 rH^t^ ^O 

.-H IM CO lO ^O t> 05 O >-< CO Oi 
I-l 1— 1 I— ( I— 1 






















O 

.s 


spunoj UI 
ssoq uopoujj 


-#CDOO 

OOi-HCft COO'O oo 

O CO CD (N 05 1> t^ 00 

rHi-H(M CO-* 


























puooag jad 
tjaa^ UI A:ipopA 


-* ooco t> 

ooi-i T-HC-iro coco 

<M tT O OC C <M "+ C' 


























13 


spunoj ui 
ssoq uopau^tj 


CO ot> ■* o 

CO CO 00 O 00 
































puoaag J3d 
:>aajj ui A:>popA 


coio 

CD (N 05 »0 T-H 
CO t^ O 't 00 

1— 1 !-(.—( 
































.s 


spunoj UI 
ssoq^ uoipu j^ 


<M 05 






































puooag jad 
^aa^ UI A:jpopA 


T-ICO • 

00 <© ■ 

tH ■ 






































p^ 


a:>nuii/\I jad 

gj-BtJDSIQ SUOllBf) 


lO 


o 


o 


o 

<M 


01 


o 

CO 


CO 


o 


'* 


O 

o 


oo o 

t^O (M 

1—1 t-i 


1-1 


o 


lOJ 


IS 

(M 


O 

o 
CO 


o 
o 
CO 


o 
o 


o 

o 
•^ 


8 

o 





Principles and Practice of Plumbing 143 

The velocity with which water moves through a pipe 
is not uniform throughout its cross section. It is least near 
the wetted perimeter of the pipe where the friction of the 
pipe retards the flow, and is greatest at the center of the 
cross section where having to overcome only the friction of 
its own flowing layers, it attains the maximum velocity. It 
is assumed in practice, however, that all particles of the 
water have the same velocity, and the mean of all the veloci- 
ties in the cross section is taken as the velocity of flow. 

Formulas for Velocity. — When the size of a pipe and 
the quantity of water it will discharge in a given time are 
known, the mean velocity of efflux can be found by the 
formula : 

V = -?- in which V z=z velocity of flow in feet per minute, q = quantity of 
a 

water in cubic feet per minute, a =: area of cross section of pipe in square 

feet.* 

Example — What must be the velocity of flow in a 2-inch pipe to discharge 
6.3 cubic feet of water per minute? 

Solution — Area of pipe =: .021 square feet. Then 6.3 -:- .021 = 300 feet 
per minute. — Answer. 

When the hydrostatic head, length and diameter of a 
pipe are known, the mean velocity of discharge can be found 
by the formula : 



='"Vi 



, in which V = mean velocity in feet per second, m = coefii- 

+ 54d 

cient from Table XXXVIII, d = diameter of pipe in feet, h = hydrostatic 

head in feet, 1 = total length of pipe in feet. 

P^XAMPLE — -What will be the velocity of discharge from a 6-inch pipe 500 
feet long under a head of 60 feet? 



Solution— v = 55 J — 5?^ :? = 55 J ^^ = 55 J.0567 =r 55X -238 

lf500+ (54X.5) >527 M 

= 13.09 feet per second. — Answer. 

In column 1 of Table XXXVIII will be found that the 
nearest value corresponding to .238 is .20, and following 
that line to where it intersects the column headed 6 inches, 
the value of coefficient m will be found to be 55, which 
multiplied by the square root .238 gives the velocity sought 
for. Where great accuracy of calculation is not required, 

*'l'nhl(' of s<|n:ir<> iiiclics in (liMiinals of a sqnaro foot in appfnflix. 



144 



Piinciples and Practice of Plumbing 



the constant 48, which is an average value of coefficients 
for small sizes of pipes, can be used, and will give results 
sufficiently accurate for most practical purposes. 

TABLE XXXVIII. Values of Coefficient M 









r 












J " 


)iameter ot f ipe in 




Tl+54d 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 




.05 


.10 


.50 


1 


1.5 


2 


3 


4 




Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 




ys 


134 


6 


12 


18 


24 


36 


48 




m 


m 


m 


m 


m 


m 


m 


m 


.005 


29 


31 


33 


35 


37 


40 


44 


47 


.01 


34 


35 


37 


39 


42 


45 


49 


53 


.02 


39 


40 


42 


45 


49 


52 


56 


59 


.03 


41 


43 


47 


50 


54 


57 


60 


63 


.05 


44 


47 


52 


54 


56 


60 


64 


67 


.10 


47 


50 


54 


56 


58 


62 


66 


70 


.20 


48 


51 


55 


58 


60 


64 


67 " 


70 



Formula for Head. — When the length and diameter 
of a pipe are known, the head required to discharge a cer- 
tain quantity of water per second can be found by the 
formula : 



.000704 q- 1 



in which h =: head in feet, 1 = length of pipe in feet. 



d = diameter of pipe in feet, q =z quantity of water in cubic feet per 
second. 

Example — What liead -will be required to discharge from a 4-incli pipe 
500 feet long 2 cubic feet of water per second? 
Solution — Substituting values in the formula 



0.00422 



swer. 



Formula for Diameter. — When the length of a pipe, 
the hydrostatic head, and the quantity of water required to 
be delivered per second are known, the diameter of pipe 
that will safely take care of that quantity can be found by 
the formula: 



.234 



\~v 



in which d = diameter of pipe in feet, q = cubic feet per 



second to be delivered, 1 r= length of pipe in feet, h =: head in feet. 



Pri)iciplc}< and Practice of Plunibiiu; 115 

Example — VI hat diameler of pipe will Uv requirtMl u» ilrli\«T .5 cubic fool 
of water per second through a pipe 2,000 feet long with a head of 400 feet.'* 



5 ;.25 X 2,000 o4- f . J 1 • A 

Solution— d = .234 ^ - ^^ = -^^o feet = 3-.noh pipe.— Answer. 

Formulas for Quantity. — When the mean velocity 
and the area of a pipe are known, the quantity of water 
discharged in a given interval of time can be determined by 
the formula : 

q z=. va. in which q = quantity of water in cubic feet per minute, v =^ velocity 
of flow in feet per minute, a =i area of cross section of pipe in square feet. 
Example — How many cubic feet of water will be discharged per minute by 

a 2-inch pipe when the velocity of efflux is 300 feet per minute? 

Solution — Area of 2-inch pipe =r .021 square feet. Then .021 X 300 = 6.3 
cubic feet. — Answer. 

When the diameter, head and length of a pipe are 
known, the quantity of water it will deliver in a given time 
can be found by the formula : 



f(|5 h _ . . 

q = V X ^-^l- in which ij := quantity in cubic feet per minute, d = diam- 
eter of pipe in inches, h n^ head in feet. 1 z:z: length of pipe in feet. 
E.xample — What quantity of water can be delivered per minute through a 

3-inch pipe, 2,000 feet long with a head of 400 feet? 



'243 X 400 
Solution — q := *; X-i..l=32.9< cubic feet per minute. — 

> 2,000 
Answer. 

Discharging Capacity of Small Pipes. — It is often 
convenient to know approximately the number of gallons of 
water delivered per minute, through pipe of various small 
sizes. This information will be found in Table XXXIX, 
where the discharge is given under stated heads in feet for 
various lengths, and will be useful in laying out service 
pipes. 

Example — Given a 2-inch pipe 133 feet long, how much water will ii 
•ieliver per minute under a head of 100 feet? 

Solution — The head equals three-quarters of the length. Under the 
column H =: "'♦L and opposite to 2 inch diameter, we find the answer 173.1 
gallons. In the same way we will find that a '/s-inch pipe 7.S feet long, under 
a head of 150 feet i H ;= 2L • will di-charge approximately 15.4 gallons per 
minute. 



146 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

TABLE XXXIX. Discharging Capacity of Pipes 



O fi 


►J 






o 




b „ 


■rH 




_ca Q, 


II 




Scu 


K 




y?, 


19 


8 


% 


34 


5 


■% 


54 


4 


1 


HI 


8 


W^ 


195 


2 


i'A 


308 





2 


632 


2 


2H 


1104 




3 


1745 




4 


3581 




5 


6247 




6 


9855 





18. 

32. 

51. 

106. 

185. 

292. 

599. 

1048. 

1651. 

3397. 

5928. 

9349. 



w 



17. 
30. 

48. 

100. 

174. 

275. 

566. 

987. 
1560 
3203. 
5588. 
8814. 



ffi 



16. 

28. 

45, 

93. 

163. 

257. 

528. 

924. 

1460. 

2996 

5227. 

8245, 



15. 

26. 

42. 

86. 

151. 

238. 

488. 

855. 

1351. 

2774. 

4839. 

7633. 



ffi 



14. 

24. 

38. 

79. 

138. 

217. 

447. 

780. 

1234. 

2532. 

4417. 

6968. 



12. 

21. 

34. 

70. 

123. 

194. 

399. 

698. 

1103. 

2265. 

3951. 

6233, 



10 
1 

29 

61 

106 

168 

346 

604 

955 

1062 

3406 

5391 



8.9 

8 
2 
9 
7 
3 
9 
5 



8 

15 

24 

50 

87 

137 

282 

493 

780 

1602 

2791 

4407 



8.3 
14.4 
22.8 
46.8 
81.6 
128.8 
264.4 
462.0 
728.8 
1496. 
2613. 
4122. 



J 



7.7 
13.4 
21.1 
43.2 
75.6 
119.3 
248.8 
427.7 
674.8 
1385. 
2420. 
3817. 



X 



7.0 
12.2 
19..S 
39 . 5 
69'. 
108.9 
223.5 
390.4 
615.9 
1264. 
2209. 
3484. 







c^ 




sT, 


^ 


03 Q, 


II 


5 a; 


ffi 


V2 


6.3 


% 


10.9 


% 


17.2 


1 


35.3 


IM 


61.7 


IH 


97.4 


2 


199.9 


2^2 


349.2 


3 


555.5 


4 


1133. 


5 


1976. 


6 


3116. 



5. 

9. 

14. 

30. 

53. 

84. 

173. 

302. 

477. 

979. 

1711. 

2693. 



4, 

7. 

12, 

25. 

43. 

68. 

141. 

246. 

390. 

800. 

1394. 

2204. 



3.6 

6.3 

9.9 

20.4 

35.6 

56.2 

115.4 

201.6 

317.8 

653.8 

1141. 

1799. 



3.1 

5.5 

8.6 

17.7 

30.9 

48.7 

100. 

174.6 

275.8 

566.2 

987.7 

1558. 



2. 

4. 

7. 

15. 

27. 

43. 

89. 

156. 

246. 

506. 

883. 

1384. 



2.6 

4.4 

7.0 

14.4 

25.2 

39.8 

81.6 

142.6 

225.2 

463.2 

806.5 

1272. 



X 



2. 

4. 

6. 

13. 

23. 

36. 

75. 

132. 

208. 

428. 

746. 

1178. 



2. 2 

3^9 

6.1 

12.5 

21.8 

34.4 

70.7 

123.5 

195.1 

399.0 

698.5 

1102. 



2.1 

3.6 

5.7 

11.8 

20.6 

32.5 

66.6 

116.4 

183.9 

377.5 

658.5 

1039. 



2.0 

3.5 

5.4 

11.2 

19.5 

30.8 

63.2 

110.4 

174.5 

358.1 

624.7 

985.5 



From this table the discharge of any length of pipe 
under any head used in practice can readily be determined. 
The abbreviation H stands for head, and L for length. 

Checking up the table with the formula for quantity 
and the example worked, it will be found that they agree 
almost exactly. The problem is to find the quantity of 
water that can be delivered per minute through a 3-inch 
pipe 2,000 feet long, under a head of 400 feet. According 
to the example worked out, the pipe has a capacity of 32.97 
cubic feet per minute. As there are 7.47 gallons in a cubic 
foot, the capacity of this 3-inch pipe in gallons is 246.28 per 
minute. 

Now, a pipe 2,000 feet long with a head of 400 feet has 
a ratio of Head equal to 1/5 its length ; and looking on the 
table it will be found that a 3-inch pipe having a head of 
1/5 length, has a capacity of 246.7 gallons per minute, 
thereby varying from the answer to the example less than 
one-half gallon per minute. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 147 

CHAPTER XVI 

MEASUREMENT OF WATER 



TYPES OF WATER METERS 



\ elocily Meteis 

Classification of Meters. — The quantity of water 
flowing uninterruptedly through a pipe may be approxi- 
mately determined either by calculation or by measurement. 
When the flow of water is intermittent, however, the quant- 
ity can be determined only by measurement. The manner 
of determining the flow of water by calculation has already 
been explained. It is measured by means of an apparatus 
called a water meter. 

Water meters may be divided into two general classes: 
Velocity or inferential meters, and volume or positive 
meters. Velocity meters measure the velocity of water 
passing through them, and, the size of the discharge orifice 
remaining constant, the velocity per foot equals a certain 
quantity which is automatically computed and indicated on 
an index dial. Volume meters measure the volume of water 
passing through them and automatically register the quant- 
ity on an index dial; they operate by alternately filling and 
discharging a chamber of known capacity. 

Venturi Meter. — The simplest form of velocity meter 
is the Venturi meter, Fig. 71. This meter may be had in 
sizes ranging from 2 inches to 60 inches in diameter, and 
fitted with an index dial, a recording register, or with a 
manometer gauge, a, which simply indicates the rate of 
flow. The meter operates on the principle that when water 
flows through a contraction in a tube of the shape and rela- 
tive cross sections of a Venturi meter tube, there is a tem- 
porary reduction of pressure at the throat b, which is 
approximately proportional to the square of the velocity. 
This reduction of pressure at the throat causes an unequal 
pressure in the pressure pipes c and d, which are connected 
respectively to the pressure chamber c on the inlet end of 



148 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



the tube and the pressure chamber / at the throat of the 
tube. This unequal pressure depresses the mercury in the 
leg g of the manometer and causes it to rise correspondingly 
in the other leg; a properly graduated scale showing the 
difference between these two mercury levels, indicates the 
velocity of flow through the meter. Having the velocity 
of flow and knowing the area of cross section of the meter, 
the quantity of water passing through in a given time can be 
calculated by multiplying the velocity for that period of 

time by the cross sectional area of the meter 

tube. 

The Gem Meter. — Fig. 72 clearly illus- 
trates the construction and principle of 
operation of a mechanical type of velocity 
meter. Water enters the cylinder from be- 
low and in rising presses against the pro- 
peller blades a, causing them to revolve in 
direct proportion to the velocity of the water 
flowing through the meter. The speed of 
the propeller is so adjusted that a certain 
number of revolutions equals a certain num- 
ber of gallons or cubic feet which are auto- 
matically indicated on an index dial. 




^=3 



Fig-. 71 
Yentiiri Meter 



Volume Meters 

The Hersey Disk 
Meter. — Fig. 73 dis- 
charges a known 
quantity of water at 
each gyration of the 
disk a, and is there- 
fore a positive or vol- 
ume meter. The principle of its operation is as follows: 
Water entering the meter passes through a perforated metal 
screen h to remove all coarse particles of matter that might 
interfere with the operation of the meter. The water 
enters the disk chamber on top of the disk a, and exerts a 
pressure there at the same time that the pressure is re- 
leased in the discharge chamber. This uneven pressure 



Prijiciplcs (1)1(1 rrdcficc of PlunibiiKj 



119 



causes the disk to gyrate, rising on the inlet side and lower- 
ing on the discharge side, so that water now enters and 
presses on the under side of the disk which again gyrates 
and brings the pressure to the upper side of the disk. The 
disk is thus alternately raised and lowered at the inlet and 
outlet ports at each gyration of the disk as long as water 
is flowing through the pipe. 

At each gyration of the disk an amount of water equal 
to the entire contents of the disk cylinder is discharged and 
each gyration indicates on the index dial the amount of 
water that passes through the meter. 

Meter Accessories 

Fish Traps. — In localities where the water supply is 
obtained from rivers, lakes, reser- 
voirs or other surface sources, fish traps 
should be used to prevent the introduc- 
tion of fish, algae, weeds or objects that 
might interfere with the operation of 
the meter. Some meters have a strain- 
er covering the inlet and forming part 
of the meter. Such a strainer is shown 
at b, in Fig. 73. When a strainer does 
not form part of the meter, a separate 
strainer or fish trap should be used. In 
localities where the water is extremely 
dirty or carries large quantities of mat- 
ter in suspension, a strainer, Fig. 74, 
formed of hinged brass strips, will be 
found more satisfactory than a perfor- 
ated strainer. Fig. 75, owing to the ease with which the 
hinge strainer can be removed and cleaned. 

Water meters should be located in an accessible place 
safe from frost. Where there is danger of hot water being 
forced backward through a meter a check valve should be 
placed in the supply pipe to protect the indurated rubber 
parts from being damaged by the hot water. 

Special water meters, the working parts of which are 
made of bronze metal, are made for metering hot water. 
Venturi tube meters have no parts that can be affected by 




/n/e^ 



\'elocity MchT 



150 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 




Fig. 73 
VoluDie ^Sleter 



the action of hot Avater, and may also be used for that pur- 
pose. 

Loss OF Head in Meters. — There is considerable loss 
of head in small meters, but this loss grows less and less as 
the size of the meter increases, until above 6 inches in 

diameter it is almost a 
negligible quantity. In 
small house meters, 
however, it is a m.atter 
of considerable moment, 
as the loss of head re- 
quires twice the length 
of time to discharge a 
given quantity of water 
through a meter that 
would be required to 
discharge it merely 
through a pipe of the 
same length. 

In Table XL will be found the relative lengths of time 
required for the flow of various quantities of water through 
m.eters of different sizes, and through the connections only. 
These tests were made on disk meters by the Bureau of 
Water, Chicago. 

The tests were all made 
under a pressure of 30 pounds 
to the square inch. 

Water Meter Rates.^ — 
The only sane and logical way 
to sell water is by m.eter rates, 
just as other commodities are 
sold. By this method waste 
will be prevented, each con- 
sumer pays for only what he 
actually uses, whereas under 
the price-per-house method, the careful householder pays 
for the extravagance of his careless town people. 

There are no good objections to selling v/ater by meter 
rates. The only one worthy of considering is the fact of 




Fig. 74 
Fish Trap 



Pri7iciples and Practice of Plumbing 



151 



great loss of head in passing through the meters. How- 
ever, the saving affected by selling the water by measure 
instead of by time, will save the head necessary to force the 
water through the meters. Cost might be raised as an 
objection, but the cost per meter is slight, and pays for 
itself in a short time in water pumped, and wear and tear 
on the system. Once a meter is 
installed, it is good for a minimum 
of 20 years. It might require re- 
pairing during that time, as any 
other mechanical apparatus might, 
but counting repairs, the average 
life of a meter is perhaps a quarter 
century. 

Water is sold by gallon or 
cubic foot measure. The number 
of gallons a consumer is entitled to 
at different rates are given in Table XLI. 

This table gives the number of gallons of water which 
a consumer is entitled to use daily for 365 days or one year, 
for the rate stated in the left hand column, at the price per 
1000 gallons given in the heading. 

TABLE XL. Loss of Head in Meters 




Fig. 75 
Meter Straiuer 



'. Disk Meter, 1 inch stream 10 cubic feet of -^ater . . .2 minutes, 18 seconds 

I Connection only 10 cubic feet of water ... 1 minute, 36 seconds 

I Disk Meter, V/2 inch stream. . . 10 cubic feet of water ... 1 minute 

Connection onl}' 10 cubic feet of watei' ... 33 seconds 

! Disk Meter, 2 mch stream 10 cubic feet of water ... 40 seconds 

1 Connection only 10 cubic feet of \Nater. . . 27 seconds 

I Disk Meter, 3 inch stream K'O cubic fret of water. . .2 minutes, 45 seconds 

1 Connection only 100 culjic feet of water ... 1 minute, 58 seconds 

; Disk Meter, 4 inch stream ICO cubic feet of water ... 1 minute, 42 seconds 

1 Connection only 100 cubic feet of water ... 1 minute . 22 seconds 

j Disk Meter. inch stream \V,0 cubic feet of water ... 1 minute. 24 se(!onds 

[ Connection only 100 cubic feet of water ... 1 minute, 16 seconds 

The cost of different quantities of water at different 
I'ates per 1000 gallons can be found in Table XLIL 

The table is used in this way : At 5 cents per 1000 gal- 
lons, 400 cubic feet of water would cost 15 cents, at 6 cents 
per 1000 gallons, 18 cents; at 10 cents per 1000 gallons, 30 
cents and at 30 cents per 1000 gallons, 90 cents. 



152 



Principles and Practice of Plmnbing 



Waste of Water. — Where water is not sold by meter 
rates, more water is wasted than is used. It is, of course, 
not advisable to stint in the use of water, but when the daily 
consumption of water per person runs as high as 150 to 300 



TABLE XLI. 



Water a Consumer is Entitled to Daily at 
Given Rates 



Xo. of 

dollars 

paid 

annually 


Xo. of 
gallons 
per day 

at 5c 

per 1000 

gallons 


Xo. of 
gallons 
per dav 
at 10c 
per 1000 
gallons 


Xo. of 
gallons 
per day 
at 15c 
per 1000 
gallons 


! 

Xo. of 
gallons 
per dav 
at 20c 
per 1000 
gallons 


Xo. of 
gallons 
per day 
at 25c 
per 1000 
gallons 


X*o. of 
gallons 
per dav 
at 30c 
per 1000 
gallons 


Xo. of 
gallons 
per dav 
at -iOc 
per 1000 
gallons 


Xo. of 
gallons 
per dav 
at 50c 
per 1000 
gallons 


$ 1 


54.8 


27.4 


18.2 


13.7 


10.9 


9.1 


6.8 


5.5 


2 


109.6 


54.8 


36.5 


27.4 


21.9 


18.2 


13.7 


10.9 


3 


164.4 


82.2 


54.7 


41.1 


32.8 


27.4 


20.5 


16.4 


4 


219.2 


109.6 


73.0 


54.8 


43.8 


36.5 


27.4 


21.9 


5 


274.0 


137.0 


91.3 


68.5 


54.8 


45.6 


34.2 


27.4 


6 


328.8 


164.4 


109.6 


82.2 


65.7 


54.8 


41.1 


32.8 


7 


383.6 


191.8 


127.8 


95.9 


76.7 


63.9 


47.9 


38.3 


8 


438.4 


219.2 


146.1 


109.7 


87.6 


73.0 


54.8 


43.8 


9 


493.1 


246.6 


164.4 


123.4 


98.6 


82.2 


61.6 


49.3 


10 


547.9 


273.9 


182.6 


137.0 


109.6 


91.3 


68.4 


54.8 


20 


1096 


548 


365 


274 


219 


182 


137 


109.6 


30 


1644 


822 


548 


411 


329 


274 


205 


KM. 4 


40 


2192 


1096 


730 


548 


438 


365 


274 


219.2 


50 


2740 


1370 


913 


685 


548 


456 


342 


274.0 


60 


3288 


1644 


1096 


822 


657 


548 


411 


328.7 


70 


38.36 


1917 


1278 


959 


767 


639 


479 


383.5 


80 


4384 


2191 


1461 


1095 


876 


730 


548 


438.3 


90 


4931 


2465 


1643 


1232 


986 


822 


616 


493.1 


100 


5479 


2739 


1826 


1369 


1095 


913 


684 


547.9 


200 


10959 


5479 


3653 


2739 


2191 


1826 


1370 


1095.8 


300 


16438 


8219 


5479 


4109 


3287 


2739 


2055 


1643.8 


400 


21918 


10959 


7305 


5479 


4383 


3652 


2740 


2191.7 


oOO 


27397 


13698 


9132 


6849 


5479 


4566 


3424 


27.39.7 


GOO 


32876 


16438 


10958 


8218 


6575 


5479 


4109 


3287.6 


700 


38356 


19178 


12784 


9588 


7671 


6392 


4794 


3835.6 


800 


43835 


21917 


14610 


10958 


8766 


7305 


5479 


4383.5 


900 


49315 


24657 


16437 


12328 


9862 


8218 


6164 


4931 . 5 


1000 


54794 


27397 


18263 


13698 


10959 


9132 


6849 


5479.4 



gallons, fully one-sixth of it is wasted. Where water is 
charged for at the comparatively high rate of 15 cents per 
1000 gallons, by meter, this will allow a daily consumption 
of water in a home of about 220 gallons for an annual tax of 



Frhwiplcs and Practice of Plumbing 



153 



TA13LE XLH. Cost of Water per 1000 Gallons 



Xiiinhcr 

of 
Cu. Feet 



5 Cts. ! 6 Cts 



COST PER 1000 GALLONS 



8 Cts. 



10 Cts. 20 Ct.s. 25 Cts. 



30 Cts. 



Cost for Quantity Given in First Column 



20 


S0.(X)7 


?0.{X)9 


SO. 012 


1 

SO. 015 


$0,030 


SO. 037 


SO. 045 


40 


0.015 


0.018 


0.024 


0.030 


0.060 


0.075 


0.090 


60 


0.022 


0.027 


0.036 


0.045 


0.090 


0.112 


0.135 


80 


0.030 


0.036 


0.048 


0.060 


0.120 


0. 150 


0.180 


100 


0.037 


0.049 


0.060 


075 


0.150 


0.187 


0.224 


200 


0.075 


0.090 


0. 120 


0.150 


0.299 


0.374 


0.449 


300 


0.112 


0.135 


0.180 


224 


0.449 


0.561 


0.673 


400 


0. 150 


0.180 


0.239 


0.299 


0.598 


0.748 


0.898 


500 


0.188 


0.224 


0.299 


0.374 


0.748 


0.935 


1.122 


600 


0.224 


0.269 


0.359 


0.449 


0.898 


1.122 


1 . 346 


700 


0.262 


0.314 


0.419 


0.524 


1.047 


1 . 309 


1.571 


800 


0.290 


0.350 


0.479 


0.598 


1.197 


1.4C6 


1 . 795 


900 


0.337 


0.404 


0.539 


0.673 


1.346 


1.683 


2 . 020 


1 000 


0.374 


0.449 


0.598 


0.748 


1.496 


1 . 870 


2.244 


2 000 


0.748 


0.898 


1.197 


1 . 49() 


2 . 992 


3.740 


4.488 


3.000 


1.122 


1 . 346 


1 . 795 


2.244 


4 . 488 


5.610 


6.732 


1000 


1 . 406 


1 . 795 


2.393 


2.992 


5.984 


7.480 


8.976 


5 OCX) 


1 . 870 


2.244 


2.992 


3.740 


7 . 480 


9.350 


1 1 . 220 


6.000 


2.244 


2 . ( 92 


3.590 


4.488 


8.976 


11.220 


13.464 


7 0(X) 


2.618 


3.141 


4.189 


5.236 


10.472 


13.090 


15.708 


8.000 


2.9P2 


3.590 


4.787 


5.984 


11.968 


14.961 


17.953 


O.(XX) 


3.366 


4.039 


5.385 


6.732 


13.464 


16.831 


20.197 


1().(X)0 


3.74 


4.4H8 


5.984 


7 . 480 


14.961 


18.701 


22.441 


20 000 


7.48 


8.976 


11.968 


14.961 


29.992 


37.402 


41.882 


30.000 


11.22 


13.46 


17.95 


22.44 


44.88 


56.10 


67.32 


40.000 


14.96 


17.95 


23.94 


29.92 


59.84 


74.80 


89.77 


.50 000 


IS. 70 


22.44 


29.92 


37.40 


74.80 


93.50 


112.20 


(iO.OOO 


22.44 


26.92 


35.90 


44.88 


89.76 


112.20 


134.64 


70,000 


26.18 


31 . 41 


41.89 


52.36 


104.72 


130.90 


157.08 


.so.ooo 


29.92 


35.90 


47.87 


59.84 


119.68 


149.61 


179.53 


00,(X)() 


33.66 


40.39 


53.85 


67.32 


134. 64 


168.31 


201.97 


1(X),000 


37 . 40 


44.88 


59.84 


74 . SO 


149.01 


187.01 


224.41 


200,000 


74.81 


89.76 


119.68 


149.61 


299.22 


374.02 


448.82 


3(X).(KX) 


112.20 


134.64 


179.53 


224.41 


448.83 


561.03 


673.24 


4(K).(XK) 


149.61 


179.53 


239.37 


299 22 


598.44 


748.05 


897 . ()6 


:)fK>.(HH) 


1S7 01 


224 41 


299 22 


374.02 


748.05 


935.06 


1122 07 


6(H).(KHI 


224. n 


269.29 


359 ()(■) 


4^S S8 


897. (;6 


1122.07 


1346 4' » 


70<).OfM» 


261 SI 


314. IS 


41S 90 


523.63 


1047 27 


1309 (IS 


1570 SS 


SfM).(KK) 


299 . 22 


359.06 


478.75 


59S.44 


1196.SS 


1496 10 


1795.32 


90(J,000 


336. C2 


403.94 


538.59 


673.24 


1346.49 


1683.11 


2019.73 


l.()(M).0(H) 


37102 


ns.s:; 


59S 11 


7IS()5 


119S 10 


1S70 12 


2211 15 



154 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 





u 

< 

o 

z 

o 

H 
U 
< 

fc. 

G 

< 

en 
td 

U 
(—1 

>— 1 

Ol 

O 

w 

O 

o 

td 

< 
S 




-" :r -^ -f a: X ■M ri -o X w 

t^O M LO M ^;^rc 1—1 Lt >-'; ^ 
CT t-C -rfT ^ -^"^ CXT rvi*" ^^ x" <>f OC" 

>— '■ C^ CO CO '^ T?* O lO >0 O lO 




MX 


?i 2 CI 5 S -^ 5c 2 -^^ 3c -3 

— ^CO^'M_^CO_^C;_^'T_C^-f Ci_X C^l 
> O^ — ^ O" O Cif t^" Oi' ^ ' -!}^'" t--" r<f 
i-i C-1 (M CO CO CO CO -*' -^ '^ lO 






o 0^ S -3 S ^ 2 x X X ?^ 

— t- •M -M C: M '-r -i- X X >C 




— '-0 C: 71 -t- r^ — O -M >o x" 

— — — -M M -M -M CO CO ro ct 


1 




i^ o co" 1 o" t^-T x" cT '-^ of lO" "^" 

1— i 1— ! T— i T-H ^H 0^1 Ol Ol Ol Ol 


n4 . 


- 


g^ f J .^ 5 g ?] g ;5 ^ 3 2 


i 


-T :C X c; — 01 CO CO -T^ i-O I- 


• 




S25x-^-^?ioi?i-3 3 
t- c: X Lt 0^1 X CO ;r; o^l i>- --< 

of co' -^^ uo" ;c" o" t--" t^' x' x" ^" 




wOOOOOOOOOO 
Ol -,C X -# Ol -^ O QC O 0-1 X 

cr. t- -t X CO I- i-i OJ t^ ^ 01 


1-3 


r-^ Ol CO CO -t" -^ lO «C l^ w X 


X 

« 




-3 o 3 2 2 5 S ol 5 5 Ol 

01 X ^ -T t- O CO -T- -^ C: CO 


^ 

« 


»— ^^ Ol 0-1 "M CO CO CO CO CO "* 




^ 


oi3ox3x3oi-^?5 3 
c^ cr. o J CO. ic w X c; o Ol "^ 




-- ^ — i ^ ^ — -M -SI Ol 




:5? 


000000:C0 00 

CO '^ LO tr: :r; t- X X c: c^ o 




^ 
5 


iOC^>^»CO^LO-TrC;>-OOC: 

l>r-fCOlCt^Ci0^^01"^t^ 
r-^r^— ■-H— iO^lO^OlOlOa 




CU 1 





^Z -M r: lO — X -f I- C: CO C: 

cc: CO CT- '-C CO c- ^c cr. X --c: I^ 




c/)t^»c>'*cOT-io^'C;dT-! 

1-; Ol CO rf LO CO -^ l^ X O 




1^ 


J 


oi-?3xo?i^ic-i^oco 

.-i .— i I— 1 r-i 1— t (M Ol 



twelve dollars. Assum- 
ing an average family of 
[Our persons, then each 
person has a daily allow- 
ance of about 55 gallons 
of water at the rate of 25 
cents a month. This al- 
lowance is sufficient for 
all necessary purposes. 
For the bath in the 
morning, 20 gallons is 
sufficient. Then, assum- 
ing that each person Avill 
flush the closet four 
times daily, and that 5 
gallons of water will be 
used at each flush, there 
still remains 15 gallons 
per person for general 
housework and laving. 

If the price of water 
is 10 cents per 1000 gal- 
lons, then each person in 
a family of four is en- 
titled to over 82 gallons 
of water daily for the an- 
nual water rate of twelve 
dollars. 

Whatever the water 
rate may be, an allowance 
of 60 gallons per person 
each day would seem a 
sufficient amount for all 
necessary purposes, al- 
lowing even then a fair 
proportion for waste. 
When 200 and 300 gal- 
lons of water per capita 
are used daily by a large 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 155 

population, the loss is not only the pumping of water, but 
the filtering of it, and the increased size of works necessary 
to supply the demand. Under such conditions, a plant with 
a capacity of from three to five times what is actually needed 
must be provided, and the cost of construction and the inter- 
est on the bonded indebtedness will add to the cost of the 
system. Uesides, the larger the consumption of water, the 
larger the sewers necessary to carry away the waste; and, 
in these days of sanitation when communities purify their 
sewage before discharging it into lakes or streams, it 
imposes an additional burden for the construction and main- 
tenance on the disposal works. 

The great loss of water from leakage or running 
faucets can be judged from Table XLIII, which gives the 
number of gallons discharged per hour through various- 
sized ports under different pressures. As a summary it 
may be stated that an orifice the size of the lead in an ordi- 
nary pencil will, under sixty pounds pressure, discharge 
about 10 gallons an hour, 240 gallons a day, or 7,200 gallons 
a month — which is more than will be ordinarily used by a 
famil>' of five people. 



156 Pnnciples and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XVII 
WATER HAMMER 



If a column of water flowing through a pipe has its 
momentum suddenly arrested by closing a valve, the momen- 
tum of the moving water will produce an impulse upon the 
valve, and also upon the sides of the pipe. This impulse is 
called water hammer. 

If the water were inflexible and incompressible as a 
bar of steel, the force of the impact would equal the weight 
of the column of water times the square of the velocity 
divided by twice the acceleration due to the force of gravity 
and would affect only the gate of the valve. As the water is 
flexible and slightly compressible, it exerts a pressure of 
equal intensity upon the sides of the pipe as well, which 
yield to the pressure and thus absorbs some of the energy 
of the moving column. The water, too, yielding to the 
pressure, slightly compresses, so that a short interval of 
time elapses before all of the energ\^ of the moving water is 
brought to bear upon the gate and the sides of the pipe. 
The pipe being slightly elastic yields to the pressure and 
thus absorbs some of the energy, but it returns to its normal 
size again, and thus causes a reflex pressure wave back from 
the valve. This pressure wave passes back and forth in the 
pipe until the energy- is absorbed in the friction of the water 
and iron molecules among themselves and against each 
other. Thus, a high pressure wave may pass back and 
forth through a pipe a dozen or more times, the intensity of 
each wave becoming less until it finally fades away to the 
dead level of the initial static pressure. 

The intensity of a high-pressure wave caused by sud- 
denly closing an ordinary lo-i^ch self-closing basin cock 
attached to the end of a lio-inch pipe, is graphically shown 
in the accompanying diagrams. 

In the diagrams, the hne EF represents a zero or 
atmospheric pressure, the line a the static pressure of water 
in the pipes, that portion of the diagram above the level of 



Principles (dkI Pnuiicc of Plinnbinff 



157 



the line (t iiulicales the increase of pressure ckie to water 
hammer, and that portion of the diagram below the level of 
the line (/ shows the drop of pressure below the static press- 
ure due to the reflex pressure wave. Diagrams, Fig. 76 and 
Fig. 77 were obtained when no air chamber was on the 
water pipe. It will be noticed that in the diagram, Fig. 78, 
the wave is more uniform and symmetrical than in the 




~a 



f 



D/a<jn3m ofl^'^^erfiommer /pinch Pipe , No Air C/iamDc-r 

others, and dies away gradually with a uniform intensity to 
the static pressure. It will be further observed that 
although there are the same number of pulsations in this as 
in the other diagrams, they are of less intensity both above 
and below the static pressure line. That was due to the 
fact that an air chamber was used in this experiment. The 
experiment from which diagram, Fig. 79, was obtained was 
conducted with the air chamber filled with water. Such a 
condition would be equivalent to having no air chamber on 



J' 




E 



l^/afer Hammer , /^ Inch Pipe. Ho Air Chamber. 

the pipe, and the results obtained under those two conditions 
were very similar. 

The conditions under which the experiments were made 
that produced the foregoing diagrams are given in Table 
XLIV, which shows intensity, duration and number of 
pressure waves produced in a l^/^-inch pipe by suddenly 



158 



Principles and Pm<:tice of Plumbing 



closing a Vo-inch self-closing basin cock. Approximate 
time of closing cock 1/100 of a second. 

The intensity of a high pressure wave caused by sud- 
denly arresting the momentum of a column of water m a 
2-inch pipe by shutting a quick-closing gate valve of the full 




£ f 

J^^^fer /y^yTimer /)/^^r^/??; /^ /nc/7 Pipe, Air Chamber. " 

Fig. TS 

size of the pipe, is graphically shown by the diagram, 
Fig. 80. It will be noticed that this diagram records a 
vacuum of about 15 pounds due to the reflex wave. This is 
supposed by the experimenters* to be an error. It is 
believed by them that the momentum of the moving parts of 
the recording apparatus carried the line that much below 




E 



r 



i^^i7ter Hc.mmer D/c^c^^^c7m; /^/nciiPipe. }'V^/erC/7^rnder 

Fig. 79 

the line of atmospheric pressure E F, and that likewise it 
recorded a maximum pressure of 15 pounds in excess of the 
pressure actually produced. Allowance should therefore be 
made for the error. 

A number of experiments were made with the 2-inch 



*Two stnJt-uts of Coruell College acting under the dii-ection of Professor 
Carpenter. 



Principles ami Practice of Plumbing 



159 



pipe and quick-closing lever-handle gate valve, to determine 
the intensity of the water hammer under different veloci- 
ties. Some of the experiments were made with an air 
chamber of 40 cubic inches capacity, attached to the water 
pipe near the valve. Some of them were made with an air 
chamber of 320 cubic inches capacity attached, and still 
others were made without an air chamber. From the results 
obtained by the experiments, the diagram. Fig. 81, was 
plotted. 




Diagram tVofer Hammer, ^/nch P/pc. 30^ S^ah'c Pressure. 
Fig. 80 

In this diagram the curves all start at the point of static 
pressure in the pipe, as that is the initial pressure. The 
results of the experiments plotted on the diagrams show the 
high pressure that can be produced in a pipe by abruptly 
stopping the flow of water, even when the velocity and press- 
ure are comparatively low. It also shows the value of air 

TABLE XLIV. Intensity of Water Hammer 



Air 
Chamber 
Filled with 
Water 



C.eneral fiala 



Static pressure 

Number of distinct blows 
Maximum pressure 
Minimum pressure 
Time pulsations continue . . 
Pressure at end of one second 
Katio of increase of pressure. . 



No Air 


Chamber 


Air 
Chamber 


Fig. 73 


Fig. 74 


Fig. 75 


29.5 


28.5 


27.5 


8. 


9. 


9. 


72.5 


69 


61.5 


2.5 


16. 


10 


O.S sec. 


12 


o.s 


30. 


iiC). 


31.5 


2.47 


2.50 


2.15 



Fig. 76 



28. 

9. 
76 

9. 

1 . 1 sec 
30. 

2.70 



Note: Tablp an<l fUagrams from "Transnelioim of Aiuorlran Tnstltntp of 
Mpohanical KukIiumts." Vol. XV, page ."»l«). 



160 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



chambers on water supply pipes and the necessity for using 
slow-closing cocks in practice, particularly when the press- 
ure of the water is high. 

With a static pressure of 30 pounds per square inch 
and a velocity of 8 feet per second, the maximum pressure 
due to water hammer when no air chamber was used was 
320 pounds to the square inch; an increase in pressure of 
290 pounds or an ultimate pressure of almost eleven times 



320 

300 
280 
260 



S 



/O 



^,240 
^220 
"^200 
<^/S0 

^/oo 
'l/^o\ 

^/OO 

i(^o 

^60 
40 
20 

































'*/ 






































./ 


f • 


• 
• 


• 
































• 


/ 




• 


• 




























• 


.• 


/• 




+ 


/ 






























f , 


•/ 




rt 


■^> 


r 




























^^ 


V 




f 


# 


V 




























(A 


/I 






:^> 


/ 




























i^\ 


\A 


• 


^ 




/ 




























t^i 


/ 




nf;' 


f^ 


/ 




























• . 


/ 


f 


A 


^ 








. 1 ^ 




^A<ri 


•^ 
















/ 


/ 


A 


^^ 


y 






Ci 


Ip'' 




+ 


















/" 


y* 


^ 


y* 




'\2' 


0^ 


ii.'^ 




> 


















y 


V 


, ^ 


^ 


^ 


(t)^ 


er 


J* 


7 


--^ 




















^\ 








Mji 


/>/'' 




























J 









































/e/oc/f/ in Feet per 5eco/7c/. 

Fiar. 81 
(.'hnrt of Wntoi- Plnmnu'i- 

the initial pressure. At a velocity of 4 feet per second with 
all of the other conditions unchanged, the maximum press- 
ure was about 135 pounds per square inch, or an ultimate 
pressure of 41/2 times the initial pressure. With an air 
chamber of 40 cubic inches capacity and a velocity of 8 feet 
per second, the maximum pressure was about 230 pounds, 
or an increase of 200 pounds above static. 

When an air chamber of 320 cubic inches capacity was 
used, and with a velocity of 8 feet per second, the maximum 
pressure produced was less than that produced with a veloc- 
ity of 3.5 feet per second when no air chamber was used. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 161 

It will be observed, however, that the experiment con- 
ducted with the 14-inch self-closing basin cock more nearly 
approaches the condition found in practice. In those 
experiments the ultimate pressure was equal to about three 
times the initial pressure, while in a water supply system 
provided with adequate air chambers at suitable points, and 
fitted with slow-closing faucets, the maximum pressure due 
to water hammer should never exceed double the static 
pressure. 

No satisfactory formula has yet been advanced for cal- 
culating the force of impact due to water hammer. The 
following example, however, will serve to illustrate arith- 
metically the severe strain that a water pipe is sometimes 
subjected to when a bibb is closed. 

If a 2-inch pipe 100 feet long, and subject to the press- 
ure due to a head of 100 feet, has a %-inch bibb open at its 
extreme end, the velocity* of the spouting water will be 
65.28 feet per second; as the area of the 2-inch pipe is 7.12 
times the area of a %-inch bibb, the velocity of water in the 

65.28 
2-inch pipe will be „ -.o = 9-16 feet per second. The weight 

of the column of waiter in motion, from which is derived 

length of pipe X area of pipe 

the force of impact, is r. — :^ — 7 =^ 

1 cubic foot 

1,200 inches = 3.14 square inches 



-, r7r»o 1 • • u = 2.18 cubic feet, 

1,728 cubic inches 

which, multiplied by 62.5, the weight of one cubic foot of 
water, gives 136.25 pounds, the weight of the moving 

velocity- weight 9.16- 136.25 

column. The ^ )< - -z ^ o "X -*S77T7. ^ 

2 gravity 2 ^ 32.16 

177.45 foot pounds, the force with which the moving column 
of water' would strike the bibb, if water were incompress- 
ible. As a matter of fact, however, water is slightly com- 



lul 
♦Rv the forimila IS 

54 a 



v;: 



162 Principles cmd Practice of Plumbing 

pressible, therefore the actual force of impact would be 
slightly less than this value. 

The force of impact to a great extent is dependent upon 
the time consumed in closing the bibb. Thus, if the force 
of impact due to closing the bibb in one second ^ 174.45 
pounds, the force due to closing it in 1/9 second would equal 
354.9 pounds, and to closing it in 14 second, 532.35 pounds. 

Air Chambers. — An air chamber is a tank, vessel or 
chamber so attached to a pipe that the confined air cannot 
escape, and so located that it will receive the initial impact 
and thus absorb the momentum of a column of water when 
it is suddenly brought to rest. When properly designed and 
located for the purpose, air chambers also provide expansion 
space for water in exposed pipes; the water expands upon 
freezing and might burst the pipes if provision were not 
made fc»r its expansion. 

The value of air chambers for water supply systems 
has ne"\^er been fully appreciated, nor the sizes required 
under varying conditions fully understood; hence, in the 
exceptional cases where air chambers are installed, they are 
usually so small as to be of no practical value. 

To wholly absorb the momentum of a moving column of 
water, an air chamber should be proportioned to the quan- 
tity of water in motion and the static pressure due to the 
head. For instance, it would require a larger air chamber 
for a 4-inch pipe 100 feet long than for either a 4-inch pipe 
50 feet long or for a 1-inch pipe 100 feet long, the pressure 
in all cases being the same ; and it would require a larger air 
chamber for a 4-inch pipe 100 feet long under 100 pounds 
pressure than for the same size and length of pipe under 50 
pounds pressure. This is due to the compressibility of air, 
which when the temperature remains unchanged varies 
inversely as the absolute pressure.* That is to say, if the 
pressure on air in a vessel be increased to twice the atmos- 
pheric pressure the air will be compressed to 1/0 its original 
volume. If the pressure be increased to 3 atmospheres, 

^Absolute pressure equals gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure, which 
at sea level is taken as 14.7 pounds. 



PifHciple-'i (ni'l [Practice of Plvmhiiui 



168 



reckoning from absuliite, the air will be compressed to 1/8 
its original volume. If the pressure be increased to 4, 5, 6, 
8 or 10 atmospheres, the air will be compressed respectively 
to 14, 1/5, 1/6, M{ OY 1/10 its original volume. Hence, if an 
air chamber containing 25 cubic feet were used in connec- 
tion with a water supply system subject to a pressure of 11 
atmospheres absolute or 147 pounds gauge pressure, the air 
in the chamber would be compressed to 1/10 its original 
bulk or to 2.5 cubic feet. The size of air chamber required 
when the diameter and length of pipe and the static pressure 
are known, can be approximately determined by the follow- 
ing empirical rule: 

Rule — Multiply the quantity of moving water in cubic 
feet by the coefficient of pressure in Table XLV. The prod- 
uct will be the contents in cubic feet of the air chamber. 

Example — What size air chamber will be required for a pipe 4 inches 
diameter and 100 feet long under a static gauge pressure of 58 pounds per 
S(|uarc inch? 

1200 X 12.57 

Solution m 8.7 X 1.18 = 10.26 cubic feet. — Answer. 

1728 



TABLE XLV. Coefficients of Pressure 











Coefticicnt 


Portion of 
original bulk 


.\ljsolutc 


Gaimc 


N'o. of Atmosplicros 


of 


to which .)ir 


I'lessure 


I'rossiiic 






Pressure 


will be com- 
pressed 






Abso. 


Gauge 






20. 1 


14.7 


2 


1 


.28 


Vi 


44.1 


20.4 


3 


2 


.59 


1/3 


.^)8.8 


44.1 


4 


3 


.88 


M 


73.5 


58.8 


5 


4 


1.18 


1/5 


88.2 


73.5 


G 


5 


1.41 


1/6 


102.9 


S8.2 


/ 


6 


1.76 


1/7 


117.6 


102.0 


8 


7 


2.05 


M 


132.3 


117.6 





S 


2.. 35 


1/9 


147. 


132.3 


10 


9 


2.65 


1/10 


1G1.7 


147. 


11 


10 


2.04 


1/11 


176.4 


161.7 


12 


11 


3.24 


1/12 



The coefficients of pressure in the foregoing table are 
arbitrarily obtained by allowing .2 for each 10-pound gauge 
pressure in the water mains. Therefore, the I'ule to deter- 



164 Principles and Pi^actice of Plumbing 

mine the size of air chambers can be expressed as a formula, 
thus: 

s = qc, in -which s z=z size of air cliaraber in cubic feet, q = quantity of moving 
water in cubic feet, c = coefficient of pressure which is .2 for each 10- 
pounds gauge pressure. 

Example — What size air chamber will be required for a pipe 2 inches 
diameter and 50 feet long under a static gauge pressure of 100 pounds per 
square inch? 

Solution — Area of 2-inch pipe = 3.36 inches. Coefficient of pressure 

equals .2 X 10 =^ 2.0; then ^^Q X 3.36 ^ 2 = 2 33 cubic feet.— Answer. 

1728 

Water at atmospheric pressure will absorb 4 per cent, 
its bulk of air. If the pressure of water be increased it will 
absorb 4 per cent, its bulk for each additional atmosphere 
of pressure. Hence, if the pressure in a system is 150 
pounds, water will absorb 11 X4 per cent. = 44 per cent, 
its bulk of air, and the air will be soon absorbed from the 
air chambers; provision should therefore be made to re- 
charge them when the air is exhausted. A pet cock in small 
air chambers and a stop cock in large ones very satisfactor- 
ily^ serve this purpose. 

In arranging air chambers they should be so located 
that the energy or momentum of the column of water can 
be expended directly upon the air confined in them. By so 
locating them they receive the initial shock of the moving 
column of water and absorb most of its energy, thereby 
minimizing the intensity and reducing the number of high 
pressure waves. Air chambers should also be placed on 
the house side of water meters or other delicate apparatus 
that might be injuriously affected by water hammer. Un- 
der all conditions air chambers should be placed in a vertical 
position and never at the side or bottom of a pipe. If so 
placed, they will shortly fill with water and become useless. 

Air chambers placed above faucets are not so liable to 
lose their air by absorption, because when passing the inlet 
to an air chamber so placed, the pressure is greatly reduced, 
and if the water at static pressure is saturated with air, the 
air will be released by the reduction in pressure and some 
of it will rise and recharge the air chambers. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



165 



Air chambers should be provided on all distributing 
drums, on the discharge pipes from power pumps, on the 
house side of delicate apparatus, like water meters, and on 
the supplies to fixtures. A very satisfactory type of air 
chamber for basin or other fixture supply is shown in l^'ig. 
82. The enlarged chamber on tliis supply |)rovides ample 
capacity for small pii)es of moderate length and being 
placed directly on the supply pipe it receives the initial im- 
pact of the moving column of water. 

Air Locks in Plumbing 

Theory of Air Locks. — The manner in which water 
may be locked in a pipe so it will not flow, even though the 
mouth of the pipe is considerably below the 
level of the source of water, can be seen in 
Fig. 83, which shows conventionally the 
operation of an air-lock. Assume that the 
tank and piping which were empty, are 
slowly filled with water. As the water 
rises in the tank, it will rise likewise in the 
vertical pipe a until it reaches the bend at 
the top, when it will overflow into the pipe b 
and seal the bend at the bottom. Water 
continuing to flow into the tank rises the 
level, thereby increasing the head or press- 
ure, and the overflow of water will rise in 
pipe c, compressing the air in pipe /; as it 
does so. From c the water will overflow 
into pipe d, sealing the bend at the bottom, 
and rise in the pipe e a certain distance, 
when it refuses to rise any higher or over- 
flow, even though the outlet of the pipe e is 
below the level of the hydraulic gradient to which, according 
to the law of water seeking its own level, it ought seemingly 
to rise. The explanation is, the confined air in the pipes 
is so locked that instead of the several columns of water in 
the diff'erent pipes balancing one another, they are all press- 
ing through the intermediary of the air, on the top of the 
water in pipe a. That being so, it is as though the several 




Air ( 'IliimIht 



166 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



columns of water were piled on top of one another. Owing 
to the compressibility of air, the water would rise to a cer- 
tain height in all the legs; but, the differences between 
levels are the heads to be considered. For instance, there 
is a depth of three feet of water in the tank. In the pipe a, 
on the other hand, there is a head of 18 inches to offset half 
the depth of water in the tank. The difference between the 
levels of the water in legs b and c is 14 inches, and between 
(i and e 4 inches ; and then 14 + 4 inches = 18 inches on top 
of the 18 inches of the column of water in a would give a 
head of water equal to that in the tank, and one column 
would balance the other so no head would be left to cause 
a flow. The water in the pipe is then air-bound. 

Trouble is never caused from air locks in high pressure 
work, but in domestic installation where the head of w^ater 



Hydro s/^crh'c Leve /. 

Hydraof//c Gracf/enf. 




7<. g^^ ; 



Fig. 83 
Air Lock iu Water Pipe 

is low it is a common cause of annoyance, often preventing 
water reaching the fixtures, particularly from the hot water 
tank. Double trapping of waste pipes will likewise cause 
an air lock in the discharge from fixtures, the pipe flowing 
perfectly free when under the force of a pump or stream of 
water, but soon air-locking when only a couple inches of 
water are allowed to run into the waste pipe. 

In buildings w^here a storage tank is used, and fixtures 
are located on the same floor as the storage tank, but some 
distance away, the water sometimes becomes air-bound so 
it will not flow at the fixtures on the same floor as the stor- 
age tank, particularly at the hot water faucet. This will 
only occur if the hot water pipe dips down from the boiler 
to the cellar or basement before rising to the fixtures, and 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 167 

no relief pipe is provided. The reason is, when water is 
heated, its capacity to absorb or hold air is lowered, and 
air bubbles released from the water collect in the top of the 
hot water loop from the boiler, displacing the air and form- 
ing an air-lock. The remedy is to run a relief pipe from the 
hot water pipe above the boiler to above the storage tank 
to allow the air to escape, or else in low pressure work, give 
all hot water pipes a rise from the boiler to the fixtures. 
Under such conditions, never trap them by extending them 
to the cellar or basement. 

Trouble from air lock is found most frequently in cot- 
tages of two stories in height, with no attic overhead for a 
storage tank, so the house tank has to be located on the 
second floor in an unused room near the ceiling. The differ- 
ence in level between the bottom of the tank and the faucets 
to a lavatory, or the supply to an overhead closet tank, is 
so slight, that but little head remains to force the water to 
those fixtures. If, then, they happen to be located at con- 
siderable distance from the house tank and hot-water boiler, 
there is not only the friction of the pipes to overcome, but 
the additional danger of air-locks, particularly when the 
hot-water pipe from the boiler dips down to the cellar and 
is run along the cellar ceiling to the point where it again 
rises to the fixtures. If the hot water pipe is run along the 
first-floor ceiling to the fixture risers, there is less danger 
of air-locks, for the instant a faucet above that level is 
opened, the air will escape from the faucet, thereby allow- 
ing the pipe to fill with water. 



168 Principles n.nd Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XVIII 
WATER SUPPLY PIPES 



Quality and Strength of Pipes. — The safe working 
pressures that pipes will sustain depends upon the materials 
of which they are made and the thickness of their walls. 
The ultimate stress that a material will sustain before 
rupture ensues, is known as the tensile strength of that 
material and is the resistance offered to its fibre being 
pulled apart. 

There are four notable stresses to which a pipe is sub- 
jected before rupture ensues; they are: safe working press- 
ure, elastic limit, absolute strength and bursting stress. 
The elastic limit of a seamless drawn pipe is generally about 
one-half its absolute strength; in the case of cast-iron and 
lead pipes, however, the elastic limit is much lower, owing 
to the low coefficients of elasticity for these metals. In 
water supply systems where the pressure is fairly constant 
and free from water hammer one-half the elastic limit of 
seamless pipes can be taken as their safe working strength. 
If the supply system is not properly fitted with air chambers 
and is equipped with quick-closing faucets, the static press- 
ure should not exceed one-third of the elastic limit of the 
pipe. In the case of metals with a low coefficient of elastic- 
ity, the safe working pressure for dead loads can be taken 
as one-fourth, and for live loads as one-sixth of the elastic 
limit of the pipe. This allowance provides a suitable factor 
of safetj' for the excessive pressures inseparable from most 
water supply systems. 

A dead load is one that is fairly constant in pressure; 
a live load is one that fluctuates in pressure or is seriously 
affected by water hammer. 

If a pipe is subjected to a great internal pressure, but 
of not sufficient intensity to strain it beyond its elastic limit, 
the pipe will yield to the pressure, but will immediately 
return to its normal condition upon being released from the 
pressure. If. however, the elastic limit is exceeded, the 



Principlc^i and Practice of Plumbing 169 

pipe will yield to the pressure and assume a new shape 
which it will retain after the pressure is removed. 

When the pressure in a pipe is sufficient to strain it 
beyond the elastic limit the pipe yields to the pressure and 
the alteration of form becomes greater and greater until 
the absolute strength of the pipe is reached. Any addi- 
tional pressure will then cause a bursting strain and rup- 
ture the pipe. 

Strength of Lead Pipe. — The pressure at which lead 
pipe will burst can be found by the following rule : 

Rule — Multiply the tensile strength of the metal in 
pounds per square inch by ttvice the thickness of the pipe 
in inches, and divide the product by the internal diameter of 
the pipe in inches. The result ivill be the pressure at tvhich 
the pipe ivill burst. 

Expressed as a formula : 

2000 1 2 . u- 1 1 ,. . . . , 

p z=: , m which p z= bursting pressure in pounds per square inch. 

d 

2000 =. tensile strength of the metal in pounds per square inch, t = thick- 
ness of the metal in inches, d = internal diameter of pipe in inches. 

Example — What is the bursting pressure of a lead pipe 3 inches in diam- 
eter and .5 inch thick? 

Sn.iTTmN 2000 X -5 X 2 _ 2000 

;30Lu I luiN — - — — — - — ;^ t)oo.o pounds pressure. 

Corrosion of Lead Pipe. — Lead pipe should be pro- 
tected from contact with concrete, particularly if cinders 
are used for the aggregate, as they form a particularly 
destructive combination. Oak also has a corrosive effect 
on lead. When necessary to imbed sheet lead or lead pipe 
in cinder concrete, or place them in contact with oak, the 
lead should be protected with a layer of tar paper, or a 
heavy coat of asi)haltum. 

The maximum thickness of a lead pipe that will burst 
under a given head of water can be found by the following 
rule: 

Rule — Multiply the pressure of ivater in poumls per 
square inch by the internal diameter of the pipe in inches, 
and divide the product by tjvice the tensile strength of the 



170 Principles and Practice of Piumhing 

metal in pounds per square inch. The result will he the 
thickness of the metal in inches. 
Expressed as a formula : 

^~4nrtn' ^" "^^^^^ t=: thickness of the metal in inches, p = bursting pressure 

in pounds per square inch, d=: internal diameter of pipe in inches, 
4000 = constant; two tensile strengths. 

Example — When the internal diameter of a pipe is 3 inches and the pres- 
sure at which it will burst is 667 pounds per square inch, what is the minimum 
thickness of the metal that will withstand the pressure? 

c 667X3 2001 . . , 
Solution — <-^— =z = .o mch 

2000 X 2 4000 

When the pressure of water is known the thickness of 
a lead pipe that will safely sustain that pressure can be 
found by the following rule : 

Rule — Multiply the pressure in pounds per square inch 
by the coefficient of the factor of safety; multiply that pro- 
duct by the internal diameter of the pipe in inches, and 
divide the product by tivice the tensile strength of the metal 
in pounds per square inch. The result will be the thickness 
of the metal in inches. 

The coefficients of the factors of safety are: for a live 
load 6 and for a dead load 4. 

Expressed as a formula : 

t = — , in which t = thickness of the metal in inches, p = pressure in 

4000 

pounds per square inch, c = coefficient of factor of safety, d = internal 

diameter of the pipe in inches, 4000 r=: constant ; two tensile strengths. 

Ex.\MPLE — Find the thickness of metal required for a 3-incli pipe to safely 
stand a pressure of 167 pounds per square inch, {a) when the system is 
equipped with self-closing faucets and no air chambers, ib) when compression 
cocks aie used and a suitable air chandler provided. 

e , , 167 X 6 X 3 __ 3006 ^r - i ,i ■ , 

Solution {a) ~ — — — = r= ./5 inch thick 

2000 X 2 4000 

, M7XiO<A^ 200J_ 3 .^^^^ ^^^.^^ 
2000 X 2 4000 

Size and Dimensions of Lead Pipe. — Dimensions and 
weights of stock sizes of lead pipe can be found in Table 
XLVI. The sizes given are inside diameters. 



rff)iciplrs (1)1(1 Prdciicc of PhniibiiKj 



17 



o 




C/C r OC-f (MX (Zj CIM CI i/j • 










■ O) CI X X >D • • ■ 


• • • • X 






m 

c 
c 


c: 


r^^^jj^^^^iCIMC^.-,, C,3^;CcO^0CCTf 


!^ o i^ 05 :c 't ».- o X :o -^ i- 


I- X O w 




(:^ 



i-i cc Tf cc >;: X c". CI 



• C Cl • Tf. C^ ■ X • CI Tf CI • X • X 






ii-HMci f:o7— '■ 



CI CI CO CO Tfi .-I ( 






■r.< 



- M 

X H H E- ^ < y P-; <'i x u; < 

.S o u u 

c\ '^ f' £ 



: .4 



o 

Mi 

sw: ■ 

o . ' 
t ><- 

xW . 






3 



o 



• 5 ti-Z-i-S' 



<;w 






^ 



^ 



172 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

Wrought Iron and Steel Pipes. — ^Wrought pipes and 
steel pipes are made in various sizes and weights and may be 
had plain, tar coated or galvanized. The v^eights of wrought 
pipe are designated as standard, extra strong and double 
extra strong; standard weight pipe being the weight most 
commonly used in plumbing installations. Wrought pipe is 
sometimes classified as butt-welded and lap-welded. In 
the manufacture of butt-welded pipe the edges of the metal 
that forms the pipe are butted together and welded. In 
the manufacture of lap-welded pipe the edges are first 
beveled and then lapped and welded to smooth interior and 
exterior finishes. Butt-welded pipes are not as strong in 
the seam as lap-welded pipes and are made only in small 
sizes of standard weight. 

Wrought pipes are galvanized by cleaning them with 
acid and then immersing them in a bath of molten zinc or 
tin and zinc. This process makes the pipe a little more 
brittle than plain pipe, but it lengthens its life by preserv- 
ing it from corrosion. Furthermore, galvanizing protects 
the water that flows through the pipe from rust discolora- 
tion, which would render the water unfit for domestic and 
for most manufacturing purposes. 

The safe working pressure for wrought pipe does not 
depend altogether upon the thickness of the walls of the 
pipe and the tensile strength of the metal, but is governed 
by the strength of the seams and the method of connecting 
diflerent lengths of pipe. For instance, a I'/^-inch butt- 
weld standard pipe is tested to a pressure of 600 pounds 
and will safely sustain a working pressure of 300 pounds 
to the square inch, while a ly^-moh lap-weld standard pipe 
is tested to a pressure of 1000 pounds and will safely with- 
stand a working pressure of 500 pounds per square inch. 

The rule may be broadly stated that small sizes of 
standard weight pipe, ranging from % to lV2-inch diame- 
ters, are butt-welded and tested to 600 pounds pressure. 
Such pipes will safely sustain a working pressure of 300 
pounds per square inch. All larger sizes of standard 
weight pipes are lap-welded. They are tested to 1000 
pounds, and will safely sustain a working pressure of 500 



Principles and Practice of Phiynhing 



173 






s 
o 



O 



C 

o 
c 

c 



I-:] 
< 









loo,[ aiqnj 



\IN \M \(N \N 

r'OCQC'^"^'-''-i'-''-'C^QOoooOQCQC;>o 

t-i O l^- 'O X -^ OC C5 C5 O •-» O (M CI 

CI rr lO 00 r-H <:C iM ^ ^ I^ to O ?C "^ »0 1-- 
>— I >-H ci "M CO 'O t^ O; O iM •^ QO 

r— ( »— I I— I »— I 

«0 O •-1 t- i-i (N OO 

CO (M n' O C4 O Ci '-' 'O »0 CO O C-1 05 

COCOr-iC-;OcCOO(MOOi'^"^cil^'ti 
1— I 00 >0 l^ t^ CO O l^ 'f CO >— I 1—1 .— I 
>0 CO W^ (M "-I 



>«. o 



J Ss 






to »0 00 I— I 00 t^ >0 l^ 02 00 l^ 
iOC5COCOOt-^COl^'^'^-«*'l>»'^'^'OCO 
1-H rt< l-^ ^ O O l-^ CO 00 to (N O 05 00 t^ CD 






lOt^t^r^-T^'-i oooc<-"ioc?i'*i^t^ 

xt l^ «0 -+" CO O O ^ O <M O tO '^ O 00 t^ 
'^OOiooo:coo<:oc:)OC;ooi^yD'0 

oi l-^ »0 "^ CO (M (M C^ ^ .— I ^ 



pnijo^ui 



00' -rt^ C^ l^ O C<J »0 i-H -^ CO O O 00 (M S "^ 
-f'^'OiOOOOSCOOOiiOCO'ti'^cO^^'O 
oC'-Hioc:»0(NCOO'^i^Or-Hy^r-(aoo 

'-H^^iMCO"^iOOr^05^(M'fiOCi 



IHUIOIX^I 



C4 O '— ' w5 O "-H lO C; »— I (M to O l^ 00 t^ CO 

i-c;(Ncoc:iCO'-HO->ocoC50coo»^'— ' 
CI >C r^ CO iM .-I <M Ci -^ o cr. lO ^ l^ -f X 

— I •-^ iM (N CO •'^ tfi id l^ C5 O (M -f >C i^ o 

^ ^ ,_ ^ ,-H 01 



ss3U3(oiqx 



X X ^ c: CO -f »r> -r -f i^ CO t^ CO O 
COXOiO'-'COf'tiOOi— I'MCO'+iOX 
C O O ^ '- ^ --^ — « ^ -M C« Ol (M Ol CI C^l 



J3)3UIBIQ 

IBUJ3)UI 

9)BUI 

-ixojddv 



1 en 13 V 



(Biua^ui 

lEUlUIOSI 



lO lO «0 >0 'O CO >o 

O -^ 1^ "f »0 ^H CO r>» t^ CO d 

rf O CO X O CO CO O CO X to "O 'O CO 
,—1 ,—1 _i ,— I CI 'M CO ■^ -* »0 "O CO 



^■..»^\W .-^■'-.W\ «\^s ^\ F-lX r-i\ 

—. ^ ^ CI CI 00 CO rf ■<!< »0 -O 



l«iapV 


en 

C 

a 

C/3 


r^ C5 CO CJ i^ 'f 

i-<-^cOC5C^»OXt^'tiXC002-T<'^cO'*' 
l^ C« CO ^ CO 05 CO Ci l^ O "^ I-' 1^ I-' '-' X 
O T-H ^ Cl CO -+i CO l^ O 1-^ <M CO .-H O CO "O 


rl -^ CI (M CO CO '^ >0 


imuaiui 


c 

72 


CO --H t^ X CO CO 

t^rf^rfCOCicOXcO'tiXl^ .-H X 
tOOOsOCOcOOCOiOXXXCOcOOlX 
O ^ --1 CO »0 X -^ O CO I^ CO X t^ Oi O X 


i-HClCO-^l^OiClLOOX 
^ ^ ^ CI 


Ittuj0ix7,{ 


■r. 


OCiX-^COX-^iO Cl^CO'+iiOCOCl 
C"4 (M to »0 CO »0 CO CO CO C5 (M CO O CO O i ~ 
— CJ CO lO X CO r-i X -t -t< ^ »0 Oi Ci^ CO 'f 


1— 1 »— 1 r-H CI CO 



-t 'i* CO -t X r-ii^ X l^ X CO X >0 'O 

I ^ CO c; CI CI ni X --< -o CO CO -f CI o -^ CO 

C« CO -^ CO' X' O CO CO O "f O «0 O 'O o o 
^ r-^ rt ci (N CO CO rt< ■^" »0 CO 



W 



174 



Prhiciples and Practice of Plumbing 



0) 






O 



'en 

2 

S3 
u 



S 

o 

CO 

s 






500J J9Cl 


•r. 

> 


r: ^ ^: c; cr: r- ce -M i> >-e t- t^ ci -* x 
ei o t^ O ce i-i -o o :o /M '^ c: (M lO o 


^ --^ M re re le t^ o c<i -^ GO O X 


^ o 


{•exiJ3:}tiI 




-M ;-: ;r: c; o ce :c ue c; X t- x re -^ 
cexr;;;5:c:^5ior-^C<ire rrcifg 


X^ l-L.. -rr.. .1^-^ — »— l! ^r— 




1 


ce t- ic '* re o c; — c '^^ o o "* :c X r- 
'c* w :r Le :^ c; re o -c; ?e O c; X t- o Le) 




C: t^ «-e 'Ti ce M C-1 (M i-i 1-1 '— : 


1 

to 

< 

2 
o 
> 

u 


IB;3is[ 


C 


. ()8() 

.101 

.219 

. 323 

.414 

. ()48 

. 893 

1 . 082 

1 . 495 

2.283 

3.052 

8.71 

4.455 

5.248 

0.12 

8.505 


^■etLraiuj 




^e X cr. — C"i — • ce ic c: ^o :;; c; t^ co t^ 
re -^ re re Le .— . i^ ue re O ro »i^ -^ X cr: :c 
c: — — ei -* t^ e^ t^ c; ei c; X -^ re ^ c; 

^- — ' ei -f" --c X -^ '^ X L^' 


YBIU31X3 




C: C: X ^: :C X ^ Le e^ — ;C; ^: Le ^ (M 

ei -M o Le :c Le -^ re re c; 'M :c o re o t^ 

-— eirei-exre — x^'=T':c>-ea:;^re^ 

T- ei c^i -* --r c: c<i ue c: '^ -^ 

1-r ^ — e-i re 


o 
c 

d 


I^Tuami 


m 

S 


^' ^ re re c^ X tc 'T^ re re ^e c: ic w o '=r 

'^ e-l -M O — X C. cr. t^ t^ X ^: C: ''ti M o 

-^ c; re i>- re c^ c: :r: c; ei o »-e Ci -^^ " o 


r-r ^ M ei re -^ --r t^ c: o r-i CO lO oc 

T— ■ 1— I ^H 1— i T— ( 


j-BTijaaxg; 


1 


272 
09() 
121 
039 
299 
131 
215 
969 
461 
082 
99() 
566 
137 
708 
477 
813 


T-^ — 'Ni'^ice"^Lei-ei>-c:Oe7"^>-'^i>-w 

r-i — T— : — - r-i C>"1 


3Jt, 




Z 


M rj M -M 


S5 


3H^3RX 


on 


re t^ cr. t^ -M '^ re — ^ — — o ^e t^ 

(M ei ^ ' ":: X Ci C M X o 'M ^t •:z i^ re 
^1— eieieirerererere^T 




5 


jsaaraBTo: 

3:iBra 
-ixojddv 


■r. 

S 


Le -e r- CI -.^ — M 'e re Le -M X x o re 
O c; e^ ^ re '-e t^ c: re ^-^ c; i-e i— ; x ^ Le 
M ei T Le t^ r; c^i -^ c: re X re x o>i x t^ 


i— 1 >— 1 ^-: c^i d re re -^ -"^t ^c 


JBIU31X3 


03 

Si 
o 


. 405 
. 54 

. ()75 
. 84 
1 . 05 
1.315 
1 . ()0 
1.9 
2.875 
2.875 
3.5 
4. 
4.5 
5.000 
5.508 
0.625 


[Buaaiui 
l-euiraox 




,-*\r-Ketf\r^C<J\ .-\p-i\ r-4\ r-,\ .-.\ 

r- T-i f^ e-1 c<l ro re "^^ -=r i^ O 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 175 

pounds per square inch. Extra strong lap-welded pipes 
when joined with extra heavy couplings will safely sustain 
a working pressure of 1000 pounds per square inch. 

Most of the pipe now sold as wrought iron is in fact 
made of steel. It cannot easily be distinguished from 
wrought iron pipe, and for most purposes is equally as good. 

In Tables XLVII, XLVIII and XLIX the weights and 
dimensions of standard, extra strong and double extra 
strong pipes can be found. 

These tables of dimensions and capacity of pipes are 
from Vn to 6 inches inclusive. Larger sizes are so seldom 
used by plumbers that they have been omitted. The num- 
ber of threads to the lineal inch can be found in table of 
standard wrought pipe. The number of threads is the same 
in the corresponding sizes of extra strong and double extra 
strong pipe. 

Merchant and Full-Weight Pipes. — In addition to 
the classification of pipes as standard, extra strong and 
double extra strong, there is a distinction made among man- 
ufacturers and dealers between pipes w^hich run within 5 
per cent, of specified weights and those which fall below 
the 5 per cent, limit. Pipes which are within 5 per cent, 
of card weights are known as full weight pipes, while those 
which fall below the 5 per cent, limit are known as merchant 
})ipes. There is no diflference in the materials used for the 
diflferent grades or sizes of pipes, and so far as the full 
weight and merchant pipes are concerned, they are sub- 
jected to the same tests and receive equal care and inspec- 
tion as to welding and material. Merchant pipe is from 
2 to 3 per cent, lighter than full weight pipe, and will con- 
sequently vary as much as 8 per cent, from card weights. 
However, for most purposes it is sufficiently strong, but 
when the maximum weights and strengths are wanted, full- 
weight pipe should be specified. 

Brass Pipes 

Brass pipes of iron-pipe sizes are made in stock lengths 
of 12 feet, although special lengths can be had to order. 
The lengths are seamless drawn, can be had plain, polished, 



176 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



4> 



g 



be 

O 



be 

o 
;^ 

>< 

© 
Q 

o 

Ci 

o 

4) 



XI 



300J J9d 



■* lO C-J QO CO >-C 00 CO CI 



T-i(MCOLOcOC5rCiOOC^1t^(>JOOCO 
1— ! T— I C<J (>1 CO CO lO 









fe 



cOrt^O'— ii— icDl-^l^O'— (O-^QO 
COOLOCOtOiOi— lCO'*(^^005^- 
>-0 Oi CD rti CO C^ (N t— I 1-i r-H 1— < 






fe 



'fCOOO'— lOlMOsiO-^cOC/Dt^ 
lOCOCjiCOOCOCOOOiOOl^COiO 



l^^ajAi 



t^ l^ t^ Oi >0 CO CO -^ (M Oi CO 
O<M00'*OQ0l^(Mt^C»L0'<tiO 
lO I- O »-0 Oi CO O >0 t^ T-H CO CO 00 

1— li— IrHC^lTtllOCOOOOil-HIJtl 



IBUJ9:)UI 



t^Oir-iiO ^Olt^^-^COiOCD 

'^cot^'— icO'^T-HODCic^r^oco 

Oi-HC^cOCil^^Ot— l^O^CjiCO 

1-1 cq ■^' "0 1-^ oi (N 00 



JBUJ3:)Xa 



TficOOO-^io (Ml— iCO^>-Oc.O(M 
lOCOiOCOCOCOOilMCOOCOOt-- 
lOOOCOi— iOOTt<TticOiOC5COCO'* 

'^<NC<i-^cOoi(M>OC5Tf'-^ 

1-H 1-H T— I C<| CO 



o 



|BUJ9:tUI 



CO CO rf 00 '^i CO LO CO (M Ir- Tfi lO 
CO(NTti00i— lOOi-Ht^COiOOCOi— I 
t~-C0001>--^COlOi— llO00rHl->.C0 

1— ii— i(NCO'!tiiOl>-Q0Oi'— ifMiO 



l^uja^xg 



OOii— iLOOii— loacocot^oot^co 
COOlCOi— iCOCOCOOicOCOOt^i— I 
CO(Mi— ifMCJ-^OCiiOT-Ht^rfOO 

(MCO-^iOiOt^CiO^N-^iOt^O 

1— I 1-H 1— I 1— I 1— ( (M 






o 
oo 

O O O O Bj|«\oo\ooH|!0\r)*^ 
1— I »— I O O O O lHio\u5\H|He^«)^ 



I I +1 



ssau^ioiqx 



OOrJHrt^OOcOC^OOOC^KMOO lO 
O'— ICOQOO-rhCOO-^OOr- llOt- 
(MC0COCO-^Tt^iLOCOCOCOI>-t>-00 



6 

w 



9:^BUI 

-ixojddv 



'<ti(Mt^»OOOi-<iOrt<cOcO'^COtO 
•<*(N000000OiiO00i— ICOCOCOt^ 
(Mrt<iO00O-^t--(Ml>i— iiOOCX) 

1— i»-ii— ((MOTCOCO-^-^ 



jBUiS^xg 
]Bn:)DV 



■^ iO r-H CO t— t^ 

OOOCOCOOiCOOOiO 



O CO lO 

O CD (M 

lO O lO CO 



1— ItHi— lr-iC<l(NeO-^'^lOlOCO 



IBUIUIO|y[ 



\?«\* \Ttl\C^ 



\C^ 



\(N 



\M 



(M (M CO CO "-t* -^ ».0 CO 



r 05 

I 2 

r2i a> 



be o 

B. xfi 

§ © 



biD 



-CJ 


•FN 


03 


0) 


0) 
U 


^ 


-M 






-« 




Jj 


O 

;:3 


rt 


4-1 


«} 


ts 


4> 




N 


'C 


• <M 


0) 


m 





H 




hJ 


C3 


w 


03 


<5l 


OJ 


H 


ft 








a 





CO 


1—1 
CO 

00 
1— 1 


LO 


lO 

lO 
1—1 


^ 


o 
(M 

1-H 


CO 


o 

6 
1—1 


CO 


o 

CO 

00 




to 

lO 


(N 


TtH 




CO 


1—1 


o 
>o 


1— 1 


o 


;^ 


lO 
(M 

1—1 


:^ 


o 


\Q0 
05\ 


CO 


:^ 


CO 


:^ 


"-0 
<M 


m 

xn 
O 


O 

el 
P. 

02 



Principles ami Practice of Plumbing 177 

or nickel-plated and tempered hard, soft or medium; the 
medium temper, sometimes called regular temper, is just 
sufficiently annealed to make it suitable for plumbing and 
steam work. Seamless brass pipes of iron pipe sizes are 
not made larger than 6 inches in diameter. Up to that size 
they may be had in standard and extra heavy weights, 
which correspond in safe working pressures with standard 
and extra heavy wrought pipes. 

The sizes and weights of iron-pipe sizes of brass pipes 
may be found in Table L. 

Brass fittings should correspond in finish with the pipes 
they join. The fittings are similar in pattern to beaded 
malleable iron fittings. 

Iron Pipe Fittings. — Threaded fittings for small sizes 
of wrought iron pipes are usually made of malleable iron, 
and have a bead cast around the outlets to strengthen them 
and prevent their splitting when being screwed on a pipe. 
For the larger sizes of wrought pipes, cast iron fittings, 
similar to those used for steam fittings, are generally used. 



178 



Principles and Practice of Plionbing 



CHAPTER XIX 
COCKS AND VALVES 



c 



D 



Gate Valves. — The two principal types of valves used 
to stop the flow of water in water supply systems are gate 
valves and globe valves. A gate valve is shown in section 
in Fig. 84. It is operated by raising and lowering the 
double-faced wedge-shaped gate, o. When the valve is 
closed, the two faces of the gate are tightly pressed against 
the seats, b, h, thus effecting a double seal. The chief ad- 
vantages of a gate valve are its tight seal and full size 
straightway opening, which oft'ers no greater resistance to 
the flow of water than would an ordinary pipe coupling or 

other fitting of equal length. Either 
end of this make of gate valve may be 
used as the inlet, although there are 
some makes of gate valves that are 
single seated or have only one gate 
face. Such valves should be screwed 
on a pipe with the valve face to the 
pressure. 

Globe Valves. — The type of valve 
most commonly used for water supply 
■^ sj'stems is the globe valve, shown in 
section in Fig. 85. This type of valve 
has an inlet and outlet end, and a valve 
disk, a, that closes against the press- 
ure. The valve is operated hy lower- 
ing the disk, a, until it presses firmly 
and evenly on the valve seat, and thus cuts off the flow of 
water. By turning the valve stem to the left, thus raising 
the valve disk from its seat, the water is turned on. In- 
stead of an interchangeable soft disk, as shown in the illus- 
tration, some globe valves have a brass disk that closes on 
a brass seat. Such valves seldom remain water tight more 
than a few months and cannot be repaired as easily and 
inexpensively as can soft disk valves; therefore^ it is a 




Fig. S4 
Gate Valve 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



179 



matter of economy to use soft seat valves. The principal 
objections to the use of globe valves are, that the opening, c, 
through the seat of the valve is never the full area of the 
corresponding size of pipe, and therefore not only restricts 
the flow but offers considerable frictional resistance; 
J"urthermore, the opening is not straight-way, consequently 
it offers additional frictional resistance to the flow of water. 
In addition to the frictional resistance and loss of flow 
caused by globe valves, they also, when placed on horizontal 
pipes, form traps that keep the pipes half full of water 



.^^ 



when the pipes are drained. 
This is shown by the part, d, 
which shows the depth of water 
retained by a globe valve when 
the water is drawn off from 
the system. This latter objec- 
tion, however, can to a great 
extent be overcome by turning 
the valve on its side, so the 
stem will be nearly horizontal. 
In this position the opening in 
the valve seat is as low as the 
bottom of the pipe and permits 
most of the water to drain out. 
Angle Valves. — A type 
of valve much used for con- 
trolling the water supply to 
separate fixtures is shown in 
Fig. 86. It is known as an 
angle valve and is a modification of the globe valve. The 
openings to an angle valve are at right angles to each other 
so that the valve can serve the dual purpose of controlling 
the water and changing the direction of the pipe. Angle 
valves are made with metal seats and with seats of soft 
materials, the latter being the better kind for use on water 
supplies. 

LiET Check Valves. — A check valve is an automatic 
valve that opens to the pressure of water on one side but 
closes tightly when pressure is applied to the opposite end 




Fig. N"> 
Globe Valve 



180 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 




of the valve. Where it is necessary that water should 
always flow in one direction and there is a possibility of 
a reverse flow, a check valve should be used. There are two 

common types of check valves ; lift 
check valves, and swing check 
valves. A lift valve is shown in sec- 
tion in Fig. 87. In this type of 
valve the check, a, seats by gravity 
when pressure in the system on 
both sides of the valve is equal. 
When pressure on the inlet end of 
the valve exceeds that in the outlet, 
as, for instance, when a faucet is 
opened, the pressure unseats the 
check, a, from the seat, h, and per- 
mits water to flow through the 
valve. If, on the contrary, there is 
an excess of pressure on the outlet 
end of the valve, the pressure will 
the more tightly seat the check and 
prevent any water from passing 
back through it. Check valves are made both for vertical 
and for horizontal pipes. 

Swing Check Yalve. — A valve of this type is shown 
in section in Fig. 88. It 
derives its name from the 
fact that the metal flap, a, 
yielding to the pressure of 
water, swings on the pivot, 
b, and thus presents a 
straightway opening for 
the flow of water. This 
type of check valve com- 
pares with the lift check 
valve about as a gate 
valve compares with a 
globe valve. The swing check valve offers less resistance 
to the flow of water through it and has a straightway open- 
ing of almost the full size of the valve. In the lift check 



Fig. 845 
Angle Valve 



//?/(?/ 




Fig. 87 
Lift Check Valve 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



181 




Fig. }>8 
Swing Chock Valve 



valve, on the contrary, the water must pass through a re- 
duced opening in the valve seat and must make two right 
angle turns while doing so. 

Ground Key Cocks. — Ground key work may be either 
stop cocks for controlling water in a pipe, or faucets for 
drawing water at a fixture. The 
only difference is in their ex- 
terior appearance, the princi- 
ples of construction and opera- 
tion being the same for both pat- 
terns. Ground key cocks can be 
had for lead pipe, for iron pipe, 
and. in the case of stop cocks, 
they may be had with one end 
threaded for iron pipe and the 
other end prepared for lead pipe. 
Cocks for iron pipe can be had 
tapped with female threads or threaded to screw in a fitting. 
A sectional illustration of a ground key cock is shown in 
Fig. 89. The plug, a, is ground to a water-tight fit in the 

cock, b, and water is 
turned on and off by 
giving a one-quarter 
turn to the lever, c. 
The principal objec- 
tion to this kind of a 
cock is that the con- 
stant wearing of the 
plug and cock every 
time the water is 
turned on or off, soon 
causes the cock to 
leak, and the leak can 
only be repaired by 
regrinding the plug, which is a tedious and rather ex- 
pensive undertaking, sometimes costing more than would 
a new cock. Another objection that should not be over- 
looked, is the (luickness with which this type of cock 
shuts oft" the water. Where the water pressure is 




rig. so 

• JioiiihI Koj' Cock 



182 



Principles arid Practice of Plimibing 



high, this might cause serious damage to pipes and 
fixtures. 

Compression Cocks. — A compression cock such as is 
used at kitchen sinks is shown in section in Fig. 90. In 
construction it is quite similar to a globe valve and, like one, 
it closes against the pressure. The core, a, of a compres- 
sion cock is fitted with a soft disk packing, b, which can 
be easily renewed when the cock leaks'. They are also fitted 
with a rubber packing, c, or in some cases with a ground 
joint to prevent water spouting out around the compression 
stem. Compression stop cocks should be fitted with an 
auxiliary stuffing box around the stem to withstand the 
back pressure they are subjected to. 

Fuller Pattern Faucets. — A very good type of 

faucet for low pressure 
work is shown in sec- 
tion in Fig. 91. This 
type of cock is quick 
closing and closes with 
the pressure, a rubber 
packing, a, effecting the 
seal. On account of the 
quickness with which 
this kind of cock can be 
closed, each supplj^ pipe 
to which they are con- 
nected should be pro- 
vided with an air cham- 
ber and they should not 
be used on high press- 
ure work. 
Self-Closing Faucets. — In institutions like insane 
asylums, where through carelessness in those, who use the 
fixtures much w^ter will be wasted, it is customarj^ to fit all 
fixtures with self-closing faucets. Water can be drawn from 
a self-closing bibb only while it is held open; the moment 
the hand is removed, the faucet is immediately closed by a 
spring provided for that purpose. A self-closing sink 
faucet is shown in Fig. 92. When the stem, a^ is turned to 




Fig. 90 
Compression Cock 



Pri}iciples and Practice of Plnmh'uKj 



183 



the left it raises the block, b, thus compressing the spring, c, 
which, as soon as the pressure is removed, returns to its 
original shape, thus closing the faucet. 

The practice has become all too common of installing 
self-closing faucets in hotels. This practice is bad, how- 
ever, and should not be continued. Careful measurement 
has revealed the fact that less water is used when washing 
in running water from the faucet than when first filling 
the bowl. But even if more water were used, sanitary con- 
sideration and a regard for the wishes of guests would 
demand faucets that 
can be regulated. 
Particular people do 
not care to wash in a 
public basin in which 
there is evidence at 
times of having been 
used as a urinal, or 
has been used possi- 
bly by someone suf- 
fering from loath- 
some and contageous 
diseases; and even 
though the consump- 
tion of water were 
greater, the hotel rates are sufficient to pay for the extra 
water consumed. 

Pressure Regulators. — Pressure regulators are appa- 
ratus for controlling or decreasing the pressure of water 
within a building and thus relieving the system of excessive 
stress. By their use, the static pressure within a building 
can be maintained at a pressure of 15, 25 or more pounds, 
while the static pressure in the street might exceed 100 
jjounds; at the same time, the volume of water or the press- 
ure of the water while running will not be affected by the 
pressure reducing valve. The principle of operation of a 
pressure regulator can be explained by a reference to Fig. 
93. The area of the valve seat, a, bears a certain ratio (say 
one-fourth) to the area of the disk, h; consequently, with 




Fig. 91 
Fnlkn- Cock 



184 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch in the service 
pipe, c, the valve, a, will seat when the pressure in d exceeds 
25 pounds. This is owing to the greater area in h, which 
compensates for the greater pressure acting on the small 

area of a. That is, 26 
pounds pressure per 
square inch acting on 
four square inches of 
disk will equal 104 
pounds pressure, enough 
to close the valve 
against 100 pounds 
pressure only on a 
1-inch surface. The 
pressure in d at which 
the valve seats, or in 
other words, the amount 
of pressure to be car- 
ried in the water sup- 
ply system, can be reg- 
ulated by adjusting the 
fulcrum, e. Moving it 
to the right will in- 
crease and moving it to the left will decrease the pressure 
in the system. 

A sectional illustration of a pressure regulator exten- 
sively used in practice is shown in Fig. 94. In this regu- 




Fig. 92 
Self-ClosiBg Cook 




Fig. 93 
Pressure Regulator 



lator two pistons, called cups, of different areas are used 
instead of the two distance valves in the former illustration. 
The operation of the valve is as follows: When water is 
admitted to the pressure side of the regulator, it passes 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



185 



through the valve port and fills the system of piping on the 
house side ; as soon as the system of piping is filled, the back 
pressure acts on the upper cup and tends to raise the stem 
and thus close the valve. As the area of the upper cup is 
greater than that of the lower cup, a less pressure per 
square inch is required on the low^-pressure side to exceed 
the pressure exerted on the lower cup on the high-pressure 
side; consequently, when the pressure on the house side 
exceeds a certain percentage of the street pressure, the 
valve will close. As soon as a faucet on the house side of 
the regulator is opened, it lowers the 
pressure on that side, and the high- 
pressure acting on the lower cup will 
again open the valve. 

The area of the low-pressure cup 
bears a certain ratio to that of the high- 
pressure cup, consequently, if provision 
were not made to overcome the differ- 
ence between the force tending to close 
the valve and the force tending to hold 
it open when the pressure on both sides 
is equal, it would be impossible to main- 
tain a pressure on the house side of the 
valve greater than that due to the ratio 
betAveen the two cups. For instance, if 
the ratio of area of the high-pressure 
cup to that of the low-pressure cup were 
one to four and the pressure on the 
street side were 100 pounds per square 
inch, the valve would close when the 
pressure on the house side exceeded 25 pounds per square 
inch and no higher pressure could be maintained. To over- 
come this difficulty a spring, a, and tension screw, h, are 
provided. Turning the screw to the right increases the 
tension of the spring against which the low pressure must 
act to close the valve, and, in proportion as the tension screw 
is screwed down, the i)ressure on the house side of the valve 
will be increased. 

There is a limit to the reduction of pressure possible to 




Fig. 94 

Pressure Keduciu).' 

Valve 



186 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

obtain by means of a pressure regulator. This reduction 
depends to a great extent on the pressure of water on the 
street side of the valve. For instance, the lowest pressure 
it is possible to obtain for 40 prounds pressure is about 14 
pounds; 50 pounds pressure, 16 pounds; 60 pounds pressure, 
18 pounds; 70 pounds pressure, 20 pounds; 85 pounds press- 
ure, 2114 pounds; 100 pounds pressure, 23 pounds; 115 
pounds pressure, 25 pounds; 125 pounds pressure, 27 
pounds ; 135 pounds pressure, 29 pounds ; 150 pounds press- 
ure, 31 pounds; 175 pounds pressure, 35 pounds; 200 pounds 
pressure, 39 pounds. 

On account of the weight of the stem and the friction 
of the moving parts, it is impossible to obtain so low a 
reduction as zero, but any pressure between the two ex- 
tremes mentioned can be secured by adjusting the tension 
screw on top of the cap. 

A relief or safety valve should always be used in con- 
nection with a pressure regulator, to provide relief for the 
system should excessive pressure be generated by the water 
heating apparatus. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 187 

CHAPTER XX 
DETAILS OF WATER SUPPLY 



Service Connections. — Small service pipe connections 
to street mains are usually made by drilling? and then tap- 
ping- with a pipe thread the street main. A brass corpora- 
tion cock, a, Fig. 95, to which is connected the service pipe, 
I), is then screwed into the street main. When the service 
l)ipe is made of brass or wrought iron, a short length of 
lead pipe laid wavy, should be inserted to provide a flexible 
connection that will not be affected bj^ a subsequent settle- 
ment of either the service pipe or the street main. 

In some waterworks systems where the pressure is low 
the street main is drilled and a corporation cock driven 
instead of being screwed into the main. While this form 
of corporation cock is extensively used, it is not wholly satis- 
factory even for low pressure systems, and owing to the 
great liability of their leaking they should never be used 
where the street mains are subjected to high pressure. 

Connections to the water mains are made by an em- 
ployee of the municipality or water company that owns the 
system. This is done while the mains are under pressure 
and is accomplished without the loss of water from the 
mains. It is made possible by the use of a drilling and tap- 
ping machine designed for the purpose. 

The largest tap permitted by most water companies is 
2 inches in diameter; hence, when larger sizes of service 
pipes are required, connections for them must be made to 
the street main either by inserting a special fitting, which 
is by far the better practice, or by means of a multiple 
service connection, as shown in I"ig. 96. With a moderate 
sized street main, connections for service pipes over 2V2 
inches diameter should be made by means of a special fit- 
ting; for all smaller sizes of service pipes and for all sizes 
of service pipes when the water main is extremely large, 
connections may be made by means of a multiple connection. 
In calculating the number of branch services for a multiple 



IBB Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

connection, allowance should be made for the greater 
amount of friction in small pipes. This is no inconsider- 
able item, as the following will show : At the same velocity 
of flow, doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capac- 
ity four times ; but the same head or pressure will produce 
different velocities in pipes of difl'erent sizes or lengths, and 
doubling the diameter of a pipe when the pressure remains 
constant, increases the capacity of the pipe about six times, 
the difference being usually stated to vary as the square root 
of the fifth power of the diameter. The number of small 
pipes required to equal the capacity of a large one can be 
found in Table LI of equation of pipes. 

In the table, figures above the diagonal line refer to 
standard wrought pipes the diameters of which vary a little 

from the actual diameters 

'!7^^^^^^^^^\>:::yK^jim given. In the lower part of 

■* the table the figures refer to 

pipes of the actual sizes 

given. 

^5^^^^ The table is used in the 

following manner: If it is 
desired to know the number 
Fig. 95 of 34-inch taps or pipes that 

Connection to Street Main ^-jj ^^^^j -^ discharging 

capacity a 2-inch pipe, glance down the column marked 2 to 
the intersection of the line in the first column marked %. 
This shows that it requires fourteen %-inch taps or pipes to 
equal one 2-inch pipe. To find the number of pipes of one 
size that equals the discharging capacity of another, in the 
lower part of the table, follow down the columns the size of 
the smaller pipe until it intersects the line of the larger one. 
Thus to find the number of 2-inch pipes that equal a 10-inch 
pipe, follow down the column marked 2 to where it inter- 
sects the line marked 10 and it will be found that 80.4 two- 
inch pipes equal in discharging capacity one 10-inch pipe. 

In like manner the size of main required to serve sev- 
eral branches can be determined. Suppose it is necessary 
to find the diameter of main that will serve one 2-inch, one 
3-inch, and one 4-inch pipe. Use the capacity of the small- 




Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



189 



0) 


< 


a 


^» 






a. 


■■ 




A 


«*-i 


*• 


o 








c 




o 


rij 






•ti^ 


H 


rt 


X 


3 


^ 


O" 


•^ 


u 


•«• 



•-3 ^ 



?3 




Q 




t^ 




t~ 


c'-t-^i '^S':: = '-'"-'^''-"^ --^^>co;t 


o 


f*; C'*?'^ OO C C vC X <*; >C X ■* « (Nt^Tf— »-r/5r- X o oo* o 


o 


«'^"-' Sg^S-'"^^'^^^ ---.r*.r>ao-vO 


•A 


— <CvC'^ — X tXt^t^'^-f'^'^. O^-^ Xr^C^XrvioCl- 
<»;rNir-. rf'^.-.^^- 


w^ 


-t 




t 


U-. r^-. >C<^1— — — tM 


'♦i 


C> -" c <*: »- 


(■»■, 


'^1 


^CXi/^OO^ — r^^irtrvisc (^iC — ^ir^r^C- 


1^ 


73 

U 

H 
u 

S 

5 

< 
z 

Ui 

H 
Z 

< 

H 




- 


•*XC>C CvCXf^- — — vC"^. Xt^vC — C^u". 

— rM'^C'^C'fNt^CXC^'^t^ts tsi/jxr^^C^-'C'^"". ■^'^"^tN 

C'^C— 

- - ir, c — 'tX'!tfCP^i^«- «w«^fspm>0(^'»tt~'^ — — •* 


- 


c 


X>C>Ct^ C<^ — f^, -- X^X — i^ — C>^t^C 


2 




c> 


Of^X — X^C^vC-CXC^f^ r^t-~ — \C — Xi^. CS — CXt^ — -"to 


C\ 


ir, p<^ ^ — ?vj f, ir. i^ 


X 


'^0\X C'^r^— j^Ct^ — vCu^r^iAw"". M 


X 




t^ 


XX-*X f^, li-. t^ — lA, r^^fviX Tj-vO 


I-- 


— C>0'XC^r^O''^t^-- — ^fN-^^irjvct^xO — iru-. -^O 


>o 


0>^i/: — XX'^i/^Tfir^X XOr^ 


^ 


«/". 


— XC^ — XX 'O'tu^X'^'^i'^. vC'^r^-XvCvCC — — f^i'S'O 


If, 


t- -c — 'T — I- f'. — — CM 'O •* c X C (^"r X — I/-, c X ^1 

r^ — X^-" — — — — ^lpvl'->]f^vC 


^ 


1^ 1^ "^1 r', t^ -r X >ri rr -^ o ^.'^ 

Tf — C-tX— XC^'*-. •tXi-OXO'^i — C>>C — C^ — C — i-C 

ir, — r) f^, -t O 

OC-t-^. ^C^^) — '^i-t'CX — >r X'^X-fO^^-fC 
~i ^ -f — ^- — — ~i -^i -C "^ -♦• "A 1 ^ 


Tf 


-. 


'T-C'^.—^-O "; C r^ C ^ "". -t ir, 
£■ ir; =• — C X ^^4 C "". O ''. "". X — C 1 - i^i '^. C C — I'; >c -t C -t O 

' M-fi-C* 

« ^1 C C '". — 1^1 •*• C C -t C> 'r ~; — C ~i <c X - ' 
5- -r '^ ^ — — •^i -^ -t '/-, c t^ X 


r^ 






-^ "O -t '^ O >C C r^ C^ O X ir, y — ^1 '/■. O ~i •+ r~ :> \C — 'T t- f^ <^ 
__-^_._-r-4»ti^ — t^'^ 

U-, ^1 -J — — "^1 '^ -r lo >c X ^ — "-1 




?N 


r^ O X "^1 X — X f- -f 1^1 '/-, X • O "^1 <A C '^- '- '1 1^ X t^ t- O' ■^ u^ 


«^ 


-:!^- -"-^ii^^r^s* --^-rc-^- 


^?' 


r~ I/-, O •'- "- — r^ — ", -r X X C C- -t C ^I — f^ — — < — 

X C -t ~i ^ C "". '^ C >r O ''. X '^, C' "•. '^. '^, — ^1 ^ C -C — \C 't O 

< ^(Nf^-^fu-. Ci-X — i~ — O^<^<-0 


\M 


- 


xi/". Cir xvC'^C'^i'-x-o-^. x-ti^i — ~JTC^ — O 

XO r•^■^^^CCX^-t'^'^l-»■X-r''. -tC^X'^iO-'^TfOvC'r;!^! 
— -N r^ -r lA r- 0> — -r vC C^ 'O C "". vO C^ CMA O 


- 


n\ 


I- CC fOC^CO — «XfO>OCi-XXC3^CC— . '^IX 
— '^I-t^CC'^IC — r^'^CS'^'^X^'^C' — ~IX 






• •» 


O "V 1^4 C O C O r~ "V 'r "O <») I- <^ O t X '- 1- O -t f^ C 't — 
0«"<'^XOi-t~X — O'^'OO^'tXir, C'M'^'O'^it^rMiA Org>/-, 

. . . . — — ^, c — i^-f". -OCCO^XO^i/-. 'OOOTt — r-'O 
'^ '^ <N I^ — _," ^' -^^ -t U-; i^' X O ^' t' r-T o" O cm" xfi O t^" o" 

— — ?v) 


■ M 


5 


" -. — -^1 ~i -o t U-. C 1- X c* C — ~i ". -nr o r- X O ■<r c c ~i X 


5 



190 



Principles and Practice of Plumbiufj 



est pipe as a measure. Then: One 2-inch pipe has the 
capacity of one 2-inch pipe ; one 3-inch pipe has the capacity 
of 3.06 2-inch pipes; one 4-inch pipe has the capacity of 
6.45 2-inch pipes. The combined capacity of the pipes 
equals that of 10.53 2-inch pipes. Required, a water main 
with the capacity of 10.53 2-inch pipes. From the table it 
is found that a 5-inch pipe has the capacity of 11.9 2-inch 
pipes, so would be more than large enough to serve all the 
branches. 

Hotels, clubs, hospitals and other buildings that re- 
quire an uninterrupted supply of water should when possi- 
ble be provided with two service pipes. Each service pipe 
should be of sufficient capacity to supply the entire building 

and should be con- 
nected to the street 
main in different 
streets. The service 
pipes should then 
be cross connected 
within the building, 
so that if water is 
shut off from one 
city main an ade- 
quate supply can be 
drawn from the 
other one. 

Service pipes are usually provided with a stop cock 
located at the curb. This curb cock gives the water com- 
pany control of the supply within a building, so that water 
can be shut off at any time without digging down to the 
corporation cock or entering the premises. 

The comparative capacities of pipes of standard sizes, 
when the velocity of flow remains constant, or the number 
of times the area of one pipe is contained in that of a larger, 
can be found in Table LII. 

Suppose, for instance, it is necessary to know how 
many times the area of a %-inch pipe is contained in that 
of a 21/2-inch pipe. Glancing down column 1 to the size 
marked 21/2) then along the horizontal line until it intersects 




Fig. 96 
Multiple Connection to Street Main 



Principlcti (ukJ Practice of Plumbing 



191 






< 

> 

g 

a 

g 

o 






o 


»— < 


o> 


(M 


00 


C^ o 


t^ 


CO o o 

^ r-H r^ IM 


>o 


rc t^ (N I- 


»o 


'^ O: O ^ r: 
-^ 1— ' '— ' 'M cc cc 


■^ 


lO C^ O Si O CI 

— ' '-1 c<j CO re '-'^ o 


»0 


ro o cr. cr> o 'f ci 

r-H T-( CJ (M CO »0 w l^ 


»0 


ro 1^ !>. Ci (M i^ i^ :::; 




OOOi— lO'-HTfcOO 

'- '^'>\(>\ -t --^ yj o o^ o 

I-H T— ( >— ( 


CS 


" -^ C^i (M CO O X r-J Tt< ci CO 

r- r-^ -i (M 


\C« 


::^ CO O GC (M X -— 1 o 't^ c^l O 


^ -^ (M CO CO 


^•^ 


CO c^l CI O ^ 'C CO CO C: i-O i^ i^ 


^ ^ ■M CO i-o -^ X CO a-. »-o -t ri <M 

-— 1 r-^ (M CO TH lO 


- 


-^ rf CI lO lO rfi t^ .-H -rfi Ci O •^ CO 

r-^ — 'ci CO «'^ X ^ -f co co -f x; co ^ 
— " M CO Tf »o l^ C: 


^•» 


:^ a: X en c; x >.o X rf r- CO y. CO X 


— ^ -M CO vr r; CO X CO i^ f -^ CO o t- 
^ ^ (M CO »;:; t^ c: t^ r^ 


VM 


i^ u: c: w O l^ n "^ 1^ w t^ o ^ l^ w 


r- r- ti -t •>:; '-' »o -r oi — »-o -r •- -^ X X 
r- r-. ci CO "^ :^ c; c^i ::; i tc 


• O 1- — X -^ «0 O •t O -^ CO 1-- OJ CI I— »^ 




— — '^^-^t'.wl^^cx»-<w'^oo^'-^c^^'— 
1-1 r-H "M CO »o w o '-o o --O CO ^ 
^ ^ oi oi ^: -T 


^* 


X c; d I— CO »o 0^1 CO o o ^ O »o ^-< i^ (M ro 


— — 01 '0 1^ -f C. C^l -f ^ >.o Ol 0^ I- c-i O -^ 1^ 

— .— CO -r 1 - c". 01 ~. 1 - I - y: ^ '^ 
— ' r- 01 ?o -t -^ 1 - 




ClC0C0C0l^(MCrO-^-'X»0'^OC^JC0'fC0 


»— '- CO iO ~ -i- -^ >C X CO r: 01 OJ C". 'O 1 - X Ol X 
— 01 CO i^ X 01 I- Ol -i- O 1- 1- -^ I« 

" — 01 :o <o -^ X -^ CO 




M 



192 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

the column headed '^^, it will be seen that a 214-inch pipe is 
equal in area to nine -^^ pipes. 

Sizes of Water Pipes. — Water supply systems should 
be so proportioned that a plentiful supply of water at low 
velocity can be had at all fixtures. If pipes are too small, 
there will be the annoyance of one faucet robbing another, 
also, owing to the high velocity of flow when water is being 
drawn, a disagreeable singing or hissing noise will be heard 
in the pipes and the sound will be conveyed to all parts of 
the building where there are pipes. 

In proportioning a water supply system the chief condi- 
tion to be ascertained is the probable number of fixtures 
at which water will simultaneously be drawn. In resi- 
dences and other buildings with comparatively few fixtures 
the supply pipes should be proportioned to supply all the 
fixtures simultaneously. In hotels, apartment houses and 
like buildings, however, such provision is unnecessary. It 
is not probable that more than one fixture at a time will be 
in use in a bath room, nor is it probable that more than one 
fixture at a time will be used in the kitchen, although it is 
quite probable that fixtures in kitchen and bath room will 
be simultaneously used ; hence, if provision be made to sup- 
ply at the same time one fixture in each group within a 
building, the pipes will be of sufficient capacity to meet all 
requirements. 

The largest pipe used to supply any fixture is %-inch 
diameter and the average size 1 -j-i^^ch in diameter. Faucets 
and cocks for '^4-inch pipes seldom have an unobstructed 
waterway larger than lo-inch diameter, while the water- 
way of y^-moh cocks and faucets seldom exceeds -^g inch in 
diameter ; hence, if in all water pipes an allowance is made 
of the capacity of a i-i'i^^^'h pipe for one fixture in each 
group, the system will be so proportioned that an adequate 
supply of water at low velocity will be had at all fixtures. 
An exception to the foregoing statements must be made in 
the case of public toilet rooms and batteries of wash basins 
in factories or other institutions. All the fixtures in such 
batteries might be used at the same time and an allowance 



Pri)iciples and Practice of Plumbing 193 

of the capacity of a > -j-inch pipe for each fixture should be 
made. 

ExA.Mi'LK— What si/.t' of water main will be re(|uirt'(J for an apartment 
house of fifteen laniilies. eaeh ianiiK Iteinji provided with hath room an^i 
kitchen? 

Solution — Fifteen hath rooms and fifteen kitchens equal thirty groups 
of fixtures to he supplied at once, and allowing the capacity of a Vl>-inch pipe 
for each group of fixtures requires a pipe with a capacity of thirty *l>-inch 
pipes. From Tal»le LI will he found that a 2-inch standard pipe has the 
required capacity. 

Example II — What size of service pipe will be required to supply a hotel 
equipped with 280 batli rooms and 20 other groups of fixtures? 

Solution— 280 + 20 = 300. and according to Table LI about a 4M;-inch 
pipe would equal in capacity tiiree hundred '-j-inch pipes. 

Water Required for Various Purposes. — The follow- 
ing information will be found helpful when determining the 
daily consumption of water for a building: 

In estimating the demand for swimming pools, it is 
usually figured to fill pool in 24 hours and to refilter all 
water in pool once every 24 hours. A pool for 100 persons 
has a capacity of about 50,000 gallons. 

For sprinkling 100 square feet of lawn, about 1 cubic 
foot, or 7 to 8 gallons. For soaking 100 square feet of 
lawn, about 2i/j cubic feet, or from 15 to 16 gallons. To 
Hush closet each time, 5 to 6 gallons. The actual rate of 
discharge from water closets is about IVi gallons per sec- 
ond. To fill the lavatory ordinary, about IV2 gallons. To 
fill bath tub ordinary, about 20 gallons. 

The consumption of water by farm animals varies 
greatly, depending upon the season of the year, the age and 
the individual habits of the animal, and local conditions. 
The following table will give a good idea, however: Horse, 
5 to 10 gallons per day; cattle, 7 to 12 gallons per day; hogs, 
IV2 to 2yo gallons per days; sheep, 1 to 2 gallons per day. 

For mixing concrete 40 pounds of water are required 
for each 100 pounds of cement. Forty pounds of water 
equals 4.82 gallons. 

The amount of water required for boiler feeding can 
be found in Table LIII. 



194 Prmeiples amd Practice of Phtmhmg 

TABLE LIII. ^^ ?-ter Re<ixiired per Minute to Feed Boilers 



F. to W 



H_P- 



40 
aO 



Fee: 



1.2 
1.5 
1-S 
2-1 
2-4 
2.7 
3-0 
S3 



75 

90 

inn 



F€e«£ 



-t.2 

4.S 

5.1 



H.P. 





t*- f>. 


1 


T T ( 

t 1. . -s 


460 


1— ' J 


7.2 


1 


12.0 


1 490 


. J».' 


7-S 


_'— *' 


13 5 


II 300 


l-r-.' 


S 4 • 


_!•'■•; 


15.0 


; £00 


1 '.; 




" ' 


1&.5 


i ^w 


1 ;.; 




- i" 


1».0 


1 8QC 


* " 


^ 


_.- 


19.5 


1 SQO 


_ - ' 


1 ; -^ 


;.■': 


2t n 


!!■ iflfio 



24.0 
2i.O 
30.0 
36.0 
43.0 
48.0 
51.0 
60 



-Tjr to 



:iICc. CoILSUmL 



:red 



Lure common 
' ater in mili* 



Lar> Cramp i. 



raHons per eapica oauy. 



TABLE LIT. Flow of Water at Pliimbine Fixmres* 



Ruriay I^B^ ffi^ GooeB 2vc£k: Codes 

I^aHtnrSmi^yLaaqg^flsiDSSjtis. 

Ve^talile^DkSSUbe 

giopSnkBifalxs-.. 

BSBWiHn CiOfts 

BadhCiidk^ Mollis In* er eoltfj 

ii^eas^iaa^gax 

liviB'^pEa^ _ 

^HHRX- Bad^B, »«iA BauB Heads.. . . 
SlpwirBafli6,6^^jpATUiaBf«d5. 
:%fNi«-Baiai% SneiiBamHea^.. . 

S^ekTtibnfetr^owa-Sfea^ 

Xee^BodB 



U>^£ 


_-:<:c .- .i:^ 


^:i-£i_ii2i; r -uw 




4 


i (^ 


2 


2 


3 


f 4 


^ 


.^ 


9» 


4 


& 


4 


6 


S 


3 


4 


6 


2 


3 


4 


i 3 


4 


g 


1 


1 
2 


- 


! 2 


3 


4 


2 


3 


-5 


' 4 


6 


5< 


6 


S 


10 


20 


30 


40 


T 


11.., 


q> 



^: 



Pri7iciplcs and Practice of Pbimhing 195 

Water Hows from an ordinary kitchen faucet at the 
rate of about 3 gallons per minute in average use. The 
range of flow at fixtures of difl^erent kinds under a pressure 
of 30 pounds per square inch can be found in Table LTV. 



196 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XXI 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 



Lift or Suction Pumps 

Principles of Operation. — The operation of a suction 
pump is dependent on and its efficiency limited by atmos- 
pheric pressure. If there were no atmospheric pressure 
there could be no suction lift to a pump. This is shown by 
a reference to the suction pump, Fig. 97, which consists of a 
piston, a, in a pump barrel or cylinder, h, a valve, c, that 
opens on the down stroke of the piston and closes on the up 
stroke, and a valve, d, that opens on the up stroke of the 
piston and closes on the down stroke. The operation of the 
pump is as follows : When the piston, a, makes an up stroke 
it exhausts some air from the suction pipe, e, and a sufficient 
quantity of water flows in to replace the exhausted air and 
balance the atmospheric pressure on the water outside. On 
the down stroke of the piston the exhausted air which has 
been confined in the pump cylinder escapes through the 
valve, c, which opens on the down stroke. The next up 
stroke of the piston still further exhausts air from the suc- 
tion pipe and a still higher column of water flows in to 
replace the exhausted air. Repeated strokes of the piston 
exhaust all air from the suction pipe and pump cylinder, 
which then fill with water which is pumped out as was the 
air. 

Lift of a Pump. — Theoretically a pump will raise 
water a distance equal to the height that atmospheric press- 
ure will balance a column of water in a perfect vacuum. 
Experience and experiment, however, have demonstrated 
that a pump will raise water only about .75 of the theo- 
retical height. This diflference between the theoretical and 
the actual lift of a pump is due to the loss of head caused by 
friction in the pipe, and the impossibility of securing a per- 
fect vacuum on account of mechanical imperfections in the 
pump and connections, air in the water and vaporization of 
the water itself. The constant .75 holds true, however, only 



PriHciples and Practice of Phinihhig 



197 



for water at ordinary temperatures. Any appreciable raise 
in the temperature of water will cause a corresponding loss 
of lift. This is due to the fact that in a vacuum water 
vaporizes at a lower temperature than when under pressure, 
and when air is exhausted from the suction pipe of a pump 
connected with a hot water tank or receiver, the water 
instantly flashes into vapor and fills the suction pipe, pre- 
venting the formation of a vacuum. Water of temperatures 
higher than 180 degrees Fahrenheit cannot successfully be 
raised by suction but for the best 
operation must flow into a pump 
by gravity. Waters of lower 
temperatures but over 100 de- 
grees Fahrenheit are much easier 
handled when they flow by grav- 
ity into the pump cylinder. 

Atmospheric pressure varies 
with the elevation, that is, the dis- 
tance above or the depth below 
sea level ; hence on the side or top 
of a mountain the atmospheric 
pressure and consequently the 
lift of a pump will be less than at 
the sea level. Also, the atmos- 
pheric pressure and lift of a pump 
in a deep pit or mine will be 
greater than at sea level. The 
atmospheric pressure at sea level varies with the conditions 
of weather, but for practical purposes is taken as 14.7 
pounds per square inch, and as 1 pound pressure will bal- 
ance a column of water 2.309 feet high, it follows that in a 
perfect vacuum atmospheric pressure should balance a col- 
umn of water 14.7 X 2.309 =■ 33.95 feet high. Atmospheric 
pressure at different altitudes with equivalent head of water 
and the vertical suction lift of pumps can be found in 
Table LV. 

In addition to the vertical lift, a suction pump will 
draw water horizontally a great distance; nevertheless, 
when water must be conveyed any great distance, better 




Suction IMiinp 



198 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



results are obtained by using a force pump and placing it 
close to the source of supply. 

Force Pumps. — Suction pumps are limited in the 
height to which they can deliver water by the atmospheric 
pressure at the elevation where they are installed ; further- 
more, they cannot be used to circulate water through a 
closed circuit. Hence, when water must be elevated a con- 
siderable distance through closed pipes, as, for instance, in 
filling a house tank, a force pump must be used. 

TABLE LV. Safe Suction Lifts of Pumps 



Elevation 


Atmos- 
pheric 
Pressure 
Pounds 

Per 

Square 

Inch 


Baro- 
metric 

Pressure 
Inches 

Mercury 


Temperature of Water Raised 
Degrees Fahrenheit 


Above 

Sea Level 

Feet 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 




Safe Suction Head for Pump (Feet) 


10,000 
5,000 
4,000 
3,000 
2,000 
1,000 
Sea level 


10.107 

12.224 
12.689 
13.169 
13.665 
14.174 
14.696 


20.582 
24.890 
25.837 
26.813 
27.824 
28.861 
29.925 


17.0 
20.5 
21.5 
22.4 
23.2 
24.1 
25.0 


16.4 
19.9 
20.9 
21.8 
22.6 
23.5 
24.4 


14.7 
18.2 
19.2 
20.2 
21.0 
21.9 
22.8 


11.3 
14.8 
15.8 
16.8 
17.6 
18.5 
19.4 


4.7 
8.2 
9.2 
10.2 
11.0 
11.9 
12.8 


Tension of water vaoor at 


Lbs. per 
Sq. In. 


.255 


.693 


1.68c 


3.706 


7.500 


Various te 


mperatures 


Inches 
mercury 


.518 


1.410 


3.427 


7.547 


15.272 



A simple hand force pump is shown in Fig. 98. It 
combines the functions of a lift pump with that of a force 
pump. Water is raised to the cylinder by suction as in a 
lift pump, but when the solid piston, a, descends, the con- 
fined water cannot escape to the top of the piston, as in the 
case of a suction pump, but is forced out through the valve, 
b, to the house tank or other place of storage. This pump 
is known as a single stroke pump, as it lifts and forces with 
each alternate stroke of the piston. 

Slip. — At the end of the up stroke of the piston, the 
moment when it begins a down stroke, there is a brief in- 
terval of time during which both valves b and c are open, 



Principles and Practice of PUrmbivu 



199 



and during that time water flows back to the source of sup- 
ply. This back flow of water is known as the dip of a 
pump. It increases with the height of the lift of the suc- 
tion, the height to which the water is forced and the slow- 
ness of the valves in seating. When the vertical lift of a 
pump is small but the suction is long and the pump forces 
against a low head, the momentum of the moving column 
of w^ater sometimes carries it forward while both valves are 
open ; such a flow is known as the negative slip of a pump. 
The slip of a pump is a limiting factor in its capacity ; when 
the slip is great the capacity of a pump will be correspond- 
ingly decreased, and when 
the negative slip is great 
the capacity of the pump 
will be greatly increased 
over its theoretical capac- 
ity. 

Air Chambers. — When 
a force pump is operated it 
alternately sets in motion 
and brings to rest the en- 
tire moving column of 
water. As water is prac- 
tically incompressible, the 
sudden starting and stop- 
ping of the column will 
cause water hammer that 
is both annoying to occu- 
pants of a house as well as 
damaging to the pump and 
pipes. This w^ater hammer 
can be practically overcome by using an air chamber on the 
discharge pipe and so locating the air chamber that it will 
remain full of air and receive the initial impulse of the 
water. An air chamber not only prevents water hammer, 
but also equalizes the flow between strokes of the piston. 
When pumps are operating under high pressures the air 
is soon absorbed from the air chambers, which are thus 
rendered useless unless some means are provided for re- 




Fig. 98 
Force Pump 



200 



Trinciples and Practice of Plumbing 



charging them. A simple contrivance for charging air 
chambers of steam pumps is shown in Fig. 99. The air 
chamber and water cylinder of a pump are connected 
together through a gate valve, a, pipe, b, and a check valve, 
c, which opens towards the air chamber. Another check 
valve, d, that opens towards the pump is screwed to the pipe 
as shown. The standpipe, b, stands partly full of water. 
Then with the valve, a, properly throttled, when the water 
piston, e, makes a stroke to the left, some of the water will 
be drawn into the cylinder, and air will enter check valve, d, 
to take its place. On the reverse stroke of the piston, water 

is forced into the pipe, 
b, and as the confined 
air cannot escape 
through the check valve, 
d, it is forced into the 
air chamber, thus keep- 
ing it charged. 

Single Direct- 
Acting Steam Pumps. 
— The type of steam 
pump most commonly 
used for house pumps 
is a single direct-acting 
pump shown in Fig. 
100. The operation of 
the pump is as follows : 
Steam enters the cylin- 
der, a, from the steam 
chest, b, through the 
port, c, and pushes the 
piston, d, to the left, the steam exhausting from the left 
side of the piston through the port, e, and exhaust, /, to 
the atmosphere. When the piston has almost reached the 
end of its stroke, the arm, g, link, h, and rod, i, reverse the 
auxiliary piston, /, and slide valve, k, so that steam is now 
admitted to the left side of the piston through port, e, and 
as the piston travels to the right the exhause steam escapes 
through port, c, and exhaust, /, to the atmosphere. The 




Fig. 99 
Air Chamber on Pump 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



201 



reciprocating motion of the steam piston is transmitted to 
the pump piston, /, in the water end of the pump by means 
of the piston rod, m, to which it is direct connected. Then, 
as the pump piston travels to the left, water flows through 
the suction valve, //, into the pump cylinder, while the water 
to the left side of the piston is forced through the valve, o, 
into the discharge pipe. On the reverse stroke of the pis- 
ton, water flows through the suction valve, p, into the pump 
cylinder, while water on the right side of the piston is 
forced out through discharge valve, q, into the discharge 
pipe. An air chamber, /', on top of the valve chamber re- 
duces shock from water hammer and promotes steady flow. 
Two drip cocks, s s, serve to drain water of condensation 




Fig. 100 
Stc.ini Pninp 

from the steam cylinder and a lubricator, t, oils the w^orking 
parts in the steam chest. This pump is knowm as a double 
stroke pump, as it both lifts and forces with each stroke of 
the piston. For low pressure service the piston in the 
water end of a pump may be packed with a fibrous packing; 
for high pressure service, however, the packing should be of 
metal. 

Horsepower of Pumps. — The horsepower necessary to 
elevate water to a given height can be found by multiplying 
the weight of water in pounds elevated per minute by the 
height in feet, and dividing the product by 33,000. An 



202 P7dnciples and Practice of Plumbing 

allowance or deduction of 25% from the theoretical horse- 
power should be made to allow for the loss due to friction, 
w^hen the runs are not long. If the discharge pipe is long, 
or contains many bends and branches, the frictional resist- 
ance of the pipe and fittings should be calculated. 

Capacity of Pumps. — The diameter of cylinder for a 
single-acting pump required to deliver a certain quantity 
of water per minute can be found by the formula : 



d =r ^ — ° — . in which 1 = length of stroke in feet, g r= numher of gallons 
1' .034 1 n 

to be delivered per minute, n =: number of strokes per minute, d = diam- 
eter of pump in inches. 
Example — What diameter of pimip plunger will be required to discharge 

114 gallons of water per minute; speed of pump, 90 strokes; length of stroke, 

1 foot? 

Solution — Substituting values given in the example. 



=v.< 



6.1 inch diameter. — ^Ans. 



.034 X 1 X 90 

When the diameter of a cylinder and the length of 
piston travel per minute are known, the quantity of water 
a pump will discharge can be found by the formula : 

q rr: 1 a s, in which q = cubic feet of water delivered per minute, 1 = length 
of stroke in feet, a = area of piston or plunger in feet, s = number of 
strokes per minute. 

Example — ^What will be the discharge in cubic feet per minute from a 
single direct-acting pump with water piston 6 inches in diameter and length of 
stroke 8 inches, when running at a speed of 30 strokes per minute? 

Solution — The area of a 6-inch piston is .2 square foot. An 8-inch 
piston stroke equals .666 foot. Then, 

.666 X 30 X -2 =3.99 cubic feet of water per minute.— Ans. 

Actual Performance of House Pump. — The Union 
Central Office Building, Cincinnati, Ohio, is 30 stories tall. 
To pump water to the house tanks located on the 18th and 
30th floors, there are two Fairbanks-Morse house pumps, 
size 12 X 7 xl2 and 18 x 7 x 12 inches. Only one is in ser- 
vice at a time, the other being kept in reserve, and the two 
are used on alternate days. An average of 680 cubic feet 
of water was pumped from the engine room service tank 
per hour to the tank on the 30th floor, which is about 434 
feet above the floor of the engine room. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



203 



The steam required per hour to pump the water was 
461 pounds, or 1.47 cubic feet of water pumped with 1 
pound of steam. The eight-hour test indicated that $0,477 
in fuel was consumed to maintain and operate the house 
pump. To pump 1000 gallons of water took 90.7 pounds 
of steam, and 9.96 pounds of coal, making the cost of coal 
$0.010906. 



Ouflet 




Fig. 101 
Screw Pump 

QuiMBY Screw Pump. — Electrically driven centrifugal 
or rotary pumps are extensively used in connection with 
domestic water supplies to raise water to the house tank. 
One type of electrically driven pump is the Quimby Screw 
Pump, shown in Fig. 101. This type of pump is suited 
principally to forcing water and not to raise it by suction; 
hence to operate successfully it should be set at such a level 
that water will flow into it by gravity. When water does 
not flow to the pump by gravity, the suction pipe should be 
made short and straight as possible, and should be provided 
with a foot valve. The four screws that act as pistons in 
propelling the water are mounted in pairs on parallel shafts 
and are so arranged that in each pair the thread of one 
screw projects to the bottom of the space between the 
threads of the opposite screws. The pump cylinder fits 
the perimeters of the threads closely without actual contact, 
and the faces of the intermeshing threads make a close run- 
ning fit without bearing on and wearing the face of the 
screws. There is no end thrust on the screws in their bear- 



204 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



ings, because the back pressure of the column of liquid is 
delivered to the middle of the cylinder and the endwise 
pressure upon the screws in one direction is exactly counter- 
balanced by a like pressure in the opposite direction. The 
suction opens into a chamber underneath the pump cylinder 
and the liquid passes through this chamber to the two ends 
of the cylinder, and is forced from the two ends towards the 

center by the action of the 
two intermeshing pair of 
threads, and thence out 
through the discharge port 
to the house tank. The 
power to drive the pump 
is applied to the main 
shaft, a, and part of it is 
transmitted to the aux- 
iliary shaft, h, by the 
gears, c. 

Pumps for house ser- 
vice are usually fitted up 
to work automatically. 
The manner of so connect- 
ing a Quimby Pump is 
shown in Fig. 102. The 
pump is operated by a 
direct connected electric 
motor that is controlled 
by a weighted float in the 
house tank. When water 
in the tank is low, the 
weighted float raises the 
chain and counterweight, 
a, until the disk, h, trips the switch lever, c, throwing the 
contact bar, d, over, as shbwn by dotted lines, to close the 
circuit and turn the electric current on to the motor. Then, 
as the tank fills with water, the float raises and the counter- 
weight pulls down on the chain until the upper disk trips 
the lever, c, thus breaking the circuit and shutting off 
current from the motor. By adjusting the two disks the 




Fig. 102 
Automatic Starter for Pump 



Principles (uid Practice of Plumbing 205 

pump can be made to operate under the slightest loss of 
head in the tank, but it is better to so place the disks that 
they will close the switch when the tank is almost empty 
and open it when the tank is full. This avoids frequently 
starting and stopping the pump and insures a frequent 
change of water in the tank. 

Screw pumps run at speeds ranging from 900 to 1,400 
revolutions per minute, according to their size and the 
service under which they operate. Direct current 110, 220 
or 500-volt motors of General Electric, Crocker-Wheeler or 
Sprague types, are found satisfactory for this work. 

Electrically driven pumps of the plunger type are some- 
times used for house service pumps. Pumps of this type, 
however, should be provided with a rheostat or starting box 
to turn the current on to the motor gradually. If the full 
current were turned on instantly the armature would prob- 
ably be burned out ; also the pounding due to suddenly start- 
ing in motion a large column of water might injure some of 
the more delicate working parts of the pump. 

Motors for pumps operating under a variable load 
should be compound wound. Those operating under a con- 
stant load, should be shunt wound. A series-wound motor 
when the load is removed is liable to run away or wild. 

Slow operating pumps that are direct connected should 
have slow speed motors. For high speed pumps, also for 
gear connected pumps, high speed motors may be used. 

Hot Air Pumping Engines. — Hot Air Pumping En- 
gines are used for supplying water to country or suburban 
residences, and in tall apartment houses to pump water 
from the service pipe to the house tank on the roof. This 
type of pump can be operated by any kind of fuel and re- 
quires no skilled help to run it. In suburban localities, 
where a hydraulic ram or a windmill would not be practica- 
ble, a hot air pumping engine will prove the next least ex- 
pensive to operate. 

Suction Tanks. — If large steam pumps, such as are 
used for fire pumps and large electric pumps such as are 
used to fill house tanks on tall buildings, were allowed to 
pump water direct from the city mains, they would cause 



206 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

considerable annoyance -while operating by reducing the 
pressure and thus decreasing the flow of water in other 
supply systems in the neighborhood. Furthermore, the 
operation of the pump might cause water ram in the mains 
that would be annoying to other water consumers and dam- 
aging to the water supply system. For these reasons, also 
to store a supply of water on the premises to provide against 
shortage should water be temporarily shut off from the 
street mains, suction tanks should be provided in all large 
buildings. 

Suctions tanks usually consist of an open steel tank 
covered with steel or wooden planking. Sometimes, how- 
ever, they are enclosed rectangular steel tanks with a man- 
hole and hinged cover, through which access may be had 
to the interior of the tank. 

The supply pipe to suction tanks is generally so large 
that an ordinary ball cock of the full calibre of the pipe 
would be subjected to too severe a strain, hence large sizes 
of supply pipes are usually provided with a Ford balanced 
ball cock. Suction pipes from suction tanks to house pumps 
are usually cross-connected to the street supply, so in case 
of emergency, as for instance during a fire, water can be 
pumped direct from the city mains. Suction tanks should 
have sufficient capacity to store at least one day's supply of 
water for the entire building; when space permits, it is 
better to provide capacity for two days' storage. This 
quantity will tide over any probable period of time that 
water will be shut off from the street mains. 

House Tanks. — House tanks are used to store water 
for the supply of buildings and should be located at least ten 
feet above the level of the highest fixture to be supplied. 
There are two kinds of tanks commonly used, wooden and 
iron tanks. When located outside of buildinigs on roofs or 
in other exposed positions, wooden tanks are generally used ; 
when located inside of buildings, iron tanks are generally 
used. During warm weather moisture condenses on the 
outside of iron tanks, and if not cared for will drip to the 
floor and wet both floor and ceiling below. To prevent this 
a drip pan should be placed under all iron tanks and a drip 



Princivles and Practice of Plumbing 207 

pipe from the pan extended to some convenient sink or con- 
nected to the overflow pipe from the tank. 

Lead-lined wooden tanks were formerly extensively 
used, and in some localities are still, to a limited extent, but 
owing to the liability of carbonates or sulphates of lead 
being dissolved from the lining and poisoning the water, 
lead should not be used for tank linings, particularly in 
localities where the water is soft. 

Copper-lined wooden tanks are sometimes used. From 
a chemical standpoint, copper linings are not so objection- 
able as lead, particularly when the copper is tinned; how- 
ever, copper linings present so many joints and seams that 
some of them are liable to leak, and, in some waters, soldered 
copper joints rapidly disintegrate, owing either to a chem- 
ical or galvanic action of the metals. 

In extremely tall buildings, fixtures on the lower floors 
are supplied with water direct from the street mains; the 
upper floors are supplied with water from the house tank 
on the roof, and intermediate tanks are installed, so that not 
more than eight floors of the building are supplied with 
water from any one tank. In such installations the house 
supply from the roof tank should be cross-connected to the 
house supply from all the intermediate tanks and to the 
house supply for the lower floors, so that in case of necessity 
the entire building can be supplied with water from the 
house tank, which can be filled by pumping from the suction 
tank. 

Storage tanks should be provided with overflow pipes 
of sufficient capacity to safely carry off the greatest quantity 
of water likely to be discharged by the supply pipe. It is 
a safe rule to allow for the overflow pipe twice the diameter 
or four times the sectional area of the supply pipe. Over- 
flow pipes from tanks located on roofs of buildings may 
discharge onto the roof. Overflow pipes from tanks located 
inside of buildings should discharge into a properly trapped 
and water-supplied sink or a sump in the basement. Under 
no circumstances should they be connected direct to the 
drainage system. 

The size of storage tanks depends upon the number of 



208 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

people to be supplied, and the length of time they are to 
supply water without being replenished. They should have 
sufficient storage capacity for at least one day's supply, to 
tide over possible periods of breakdown of pump or boiler. 
When figuring the capacity of storage tanks, 100 gallons of 
water per day per capita should be allowed in hotels, hos- 
pitals, apartment houses and public institutions. 

In large office buildings many stories in height, also 
large hotel buildings, the tanks must be sufficiently large 
to supply water for the greatest period of time the water is 
likely to be shut off from the mains. In large important 
buildings of such character, it is advisable to have as many 
as three, and four if possible, separate service pipes con- 
nected to mains in the diflrerent streets. This is quite possi- 
ble when the building fronts on three or four streets, and it 
might be accepted as a rule to run a service pipe from the 
water main in every street on which a building fronts. It 
is not likely that water will be shut off from all the streets 
at one time, and the possibility of interrupted service be- 
comes less the greater the number of service pipes provided. 
Under such conditions smaller tanks can be used than when 
the supply is from one or two streets only. When there is 
only one or two service pipes for a building housing a large 
number of people, and where interruption of water service 
is not to be permitted, there ought to be storage capacity 
on the premises for at least 48 hours supply of water. It 
is not likely that water service in the street mains will be 
interrupted for a longer period than that. 

Part of the house supply can be carried in the house 
tanks, and the rest in the suction tank. The sizes of the 
tanks can then be proportioned to one another to suit condi- 
tions, so long as there is 48 hours supply of water available. 
For instance, if space would not permit the installation of 
large service or house tanks, the difference would have to 
be made up in the suction tank; while, on the other hand, 
if there was but little space for the suction tank, the house 
tanks would have to be large enough to care for the rest of 
the emergency supply. 

The general arrangement of pipe connections to a house 



principles amJ Practice of Plumbing 



209 



tank is shown in Fig. 103. The cleanout or emptying pipe 
is valved and connected to the overflow pipe. The house 
supply extends a few inches above the bottom of the tank 
to prevent sediment entering the pipe. Below the valve 
that controls the house supply is connected a vent pipe to 
admit air to the house supply and permit it to empty when 
the valve is shut off. A vapor or relief pipe from the high- 
est point in the hot water supply system bends over the 
tank and thus permits the escape of steam. The pump may 
discharge into the house tank in the manner indicated w'hen 
the pump is not controlled automatically. When it is, the 
pump pipe should enter the tank through the bottom and be 
controlled by a bal- 
anced float valve. "^ /pT^'^" ^^yrnp/'^pe 
A drip pan, a, un- I Ll 
der the tank and 
extending a few 
inches on all sides 
of it, catches the 
water of condensa- 
tion and discharges 
it through the 
waste pipe, h, into 
the overflow pipe. 
When a tank is 
supplied with wa- 
ter by a pump that 
is not automatic in operation, a tell-tale pipe should be run 
from a point in the tank about two inches below^ the level of 
the overflow pipe to the engineer's sink. Water flowing 
through the pipe then notifies the engineer when the tank 
is full. 

In all tall buildings the hot water line should have a 
relief valve at the house tank, otherwise hot water will flow 
from the relief pipe into the house tank. Owing to the 
water in the cold water down riser being heavier than the 
water in the hot water riser, the hot water will rise above 
the level of the water in the house tank. 

Complete Mechanical Equipment. — An illustration 




Fig. 103 
House Tank 



210 



Principles omd Practice of Plumhifig 



of the complete mechanical equipment of a water supply 
system in a building supplied with street and tank pressure 
is shown in Fig. 104. Two separate water service pipes 
from mains in different streets are cross-connected before 
being connected to the meter, so that water from either or 
both street mains can be used. The meter is shown by- 
passed. Some water supply companies will not permit a 
by-pass around a meter, and where such a rule prevails 
another meter should be placed on the by-pass. From the 
meters the water passes to the filters, w^hich are so con- 



///-<» Pump 




From Sfnrcf /^rn 



Fig, 104 
Mechanical Installation 



nected that they may be used either separately or together. 
A by-pass is provided around the filters, so water can be 
supplied direct to the building without filtration. After 
leaving the filters, one branch of the house main is connected 
to the cold water main for the lower floors, another branch 
supplies the hot water tank for the lower floors, still an- 
other branch supplies the suction tank through a balanced 
ball cock, and the remaining two branches are connected to 
the suction pipes of the two pumps, so they can pump direct 
fr^m the city water mains. The pumps are also connected 



Pnnciples and Practice of Plumbing 211- 

by suction pipes to the suction tank from which they gen- 
erally draw water. The supply pipe from the house tank 
is connected to the supply pipe from the street, at a point 
between the two cold water drums. A valve is there pro- 
vided so that in case of necessity water from the house tank 
can be turned on to the lower water supply system. A 
check valve is placed where marked on the illustration, to 
prevent water from the house tank running off into the 
street mains or returning to the suction tank. 



212 Priyiciples and Practice of Plumhing 

CHAPTER XXII 
FIRE LINES 



SysteiM of Installation. — Fire lines are now gen- 
erally installed in all large buildings. A typical arrange- 
ment of pipes for fire service is shown in Fig. 105. In this 
S3^stem the lines are cross-connected, so that either the fire 
pump, the house pump, or both pumps can supply water in 
case of fire. A house tank on the roof keeps the lines full 
of water and provides a temporary supply while the pumps 
are being started. Branch lines extending through the 
building walls to the street terminate with Siamese twin 
connections, through which water from street hydrants or 
fire engines can be forced into the system. Tlie fire system 
is well supplied with soft seat check valves, so that water 
supplied from one source cannot be lost through other out- 
lets. A check valve in the line of pipe connected to the tank 
prevents water from filling and overflowing the tank when 
supplied from pumps or twin connections. Checks in the 
lines leading to the twin connections prevent the loss of 
water from these outlets when water is supplied from either 
the pump or the tank, and check valves in the pump pipe re- 
lieve the pump valves of the pressure of water in the system. 
Emptying pipes are provided to drain the entire system, 
and separate pipes are provided to empty and thus prevent 
water freezing in the portions of pipe between the check 
valves in the cellar and Siamese twin connections in the 
street. At each floor of the building 2V2-inch outlets are 
left, to which are attached soft seat angle hose valves with 
50 to 75 feet of underwriters' linen hose coiled on a reel or 
folded on a rack. 

Sizes of Standpipes. — For fire lines standpipes should 
be proportioned to the number of hose outlets they supply. 
The size of opening in hose nozzle for hose of 21/0 inches 
diameter seldom exceeds 11/4 inches in diameter, and if 



Principles cdkI Practice of Plfnnbi)if/ 



21,'] 



allowance of the sectional area of a 2-inch pipe be made 
for each hose outlet in the building, both suflicient volume 
and pressure will be provided to throw an effective fire 
stream when all the nozzles are being used. 






? 



,•'//-:<■, w/,/:7/^/-7////^--v:-:'.^--,-^///////,-7////////^:?: 



.'^w/,y/,',:-.'/'/-//'//^.v/"y//,'^//-/yr.w//',//;////fry 





ra 



w.v:<r/'"77, 



1' 



vm//>v/,w^/.'.'V//////////.'/f.Y^///uu//fWN^//n m 



W/,'/J////,'/fVW.ViViVAV^/A-///A///,V//.-,V<V,Vi 



^ 



!5 



J JTrnpfy/n^ pip e \ c/?ecA 



hecM 




^ 



5? 



^ 



V 



y\vi. 3 or. 

Fire Lines 



Range of Fire Streams. — The extreme distance w^ater 
can be thrown both horizontally and vertically, and the 
distance the streams will be effective for fire purposes under 
different heads and through different sizes of nozzles, are 
shown in Table LVI. 



214 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 






<4H 

o 

OX) 

6 



> 

< 



















O 


, 




O 






o 




x; 






3 


^4-» 












c 










tj 


OC 




^ 
















O 






c 








J_J 










C3 


c 










^ 


c; 










■/) 






•/) 
















u^ 






C 












,-3 


Vm 






_^ 




c 


o 




:3 


I/: 










I- oJ 






55 












u~« 




3 C 


^ 




iXu= 


^ 




u ;-. 






O C 




^ 


c-£ 








s 


2- 


d 


^ 


Eg 


o 


^ 


^1 
If 








M 


c-'i, 


cl 


h 




o 


.; 


en 


o 


'■^ 


H o 




^ 


3 2 

o — 






HH 


cti 










o 




j_j 


— 1) 




1-7 


CI"" 


o 




Pressur 
various 


o 
o 




lUBaa^s 




JO aOUB^SIQ 




IBquozuoH 




tUB3J"JS 




JO 9DUEJSIQ 




]BDT}a3^\ 




•uiK -lad 




paSiBqasiQ 




f^lIOJ]-Rf) 




31ZZO>J^ 




1\3 3J1 


1SS3-I(J 







N 
N 

o 

H 

o 
o 


■0;t^t^X05O-H(M(MC0rt<i0C0c0 

t^ X Ci O '— 1 CO -^ 'O 'CO r-- X' Oi O ^-i 




COOQOUtlCOOOC'lOCOOQOtOCOO 

lO o o t-^ 00 o: o o '-H c<i (M CO -^' tf: 


XXl^Wt^COcOcOtOiOiO'^-^-rtf 
C0l>.X0iOi-i(MC0'*t0c0t>-X05 




00 >C !M Ci CC '^? O t^ -^ ^ t^ '^ '-^ CC' 

r^ >0 O O Ir- 00' OS C: O i-H — H (M CC CO 


QXt^cOrt^COi— iOXl>iO-^COi— 1 
cOcOt:^X050^0^(NCO-<ti»-OC01> 


- 


^ lO »jO CO l^ t^ 00 Oi Gft O — 1 --H (N CO 

!— * I— 1 1-H ^H i—i 


CO-rf(MOXcO^!NOXCO-<*<(MO 
tOCOl>XX050i— idC^CO-^iOCO 




^' O I^ CO Oi CO 'C^ OO ^ ^ l^ CO O CC 
^L0iu0Oc0t^0000C2OO'-'(M(M 

T— 1 1— i 1— 1 1— i ^- 


(MOit^-^OlOicO-^i-iOlcO'^i-iX 
■0)i0c0t^XX0iO'-ii-i(MC0rf<-<i 


N 
N 

o 


(M 00 '^ C; CO !M 00 rt-: C CO C^l OC '^ O 

T— 1 1— 1 1— 1. 1 


X O (N OS <-0 (N O CO CO O CO CO O t^ 
-*»0c0c01>XXC:Ot-(,-iC^C0C0 


O 

o 
S 

■•SI 


o CO rM i^ CO X -t- c; i-o ^ 1- 01 X -t^ 
^ ^ lO LO CO CO I- X X c; ^- o c; r- 

• ^ -1 ■ T^ 


^Ol^COOtiOOlXrt^T-Ht^COCiCO 

-r 'O »-o CO CO I-- X X C5 o o '-I i-i 01 

1-H 1— 1 1— 1 1-H I— 1 




X CO X -* Cr. i-O O »-0 i-i CO OJ t- Ol X 

CO -f -f iC- to CO l^ t^ X X <y. C- o c:: 


c:cOT-ir^coc:-^Oc0^t>.cociTH 
■^ ■* »-0 to CO CO t- X X Ci Oi C O '-H 

1— 4 >-H J— ' 




r- 01 «- Ol X CO X CO C: -ti C: -t" C >0. 

CO ^ -* »dC CO "^ t^ l^ X X O: C: O 


30 CO cr^ -t c; to -^ CO c-i t- oi x co g; 

rO -t: ^ to CO CO t- t^ X X Oi C O O 

1—1 1—! 




^ -* l-- O (M -* CO X Q Ol ^ i-O CO X 
T^-^TT'iOLOiiCtOOcOCOcOcOCOcO 


-0> Ci C^ to X ^ -^ CO X O Ol -* to CO 
■^'?t<toiOtocococOcOt--t^l>l:^l:^ 




^O Q -+■ t^ O Ol ^ CO X Ci O -* (M CO 
'O CO CO CO t^ t^ l^ t^ t^ t^ X X ^ X 


-O d l:^ — ^ -f t^ 3i '-< CO >Oi t- X Oi o 

■o CO CO t- i-^ t^ t-- X X X X X X cr. 




t^^COcOOllr-Clt^Olt^^COQ'T 

^0'-<^C^C^COCO'^'?fi»C.i-OcOcO 


CO Ol w Cti CO -^ ^ X 't — < t- CO 05 rf 
rO'#«OtocOt^XXCi00^^01 




i^OtCOLOOiCOiOOiCOiOC- 

ro -^ -* to »-c CO CO t^ t- X X CI o c: 


tOQtOOt:t OtOO'OOiOQiOQ 

CO -^^ "^ lO >o CO --o t- i^ X X 35 o o 

1—1 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 215 









5 


J= 


- 




&£ 




3 


^J 


O 


*♦* 




i 


V 








N 




o 




c 






>»• 


0) 

3 


s 


S 




4> 








a 




a 


^ 


•a 


Vl-l 


4J 
C 


g 


«) 


«o 


S«; 




s| 






t% 


-k! 


3 C 


8 


SI 




sl 






-«-> 


"w -i3 




So 


8 






T3£ 






f O 




.t C 




3-T 


4-1 


o-^p* 


"^ 


«j-\ 


o 


^-CS 


o 


Oi^ 


t^> 


rs o 




c« 








ai 




.ss 


^ 


U 03 


8 


3 3 


•^ 


i « 2 










&.> 






^ 




•m 




o 




»o 


1 


jO oaUBlBIQ 


]Rin07IJ0[I 


iu«ajis; 


jO 3DUB191Q 


|BO!Via\ 


•UIIM JDJ 


paSxpqDsiQ 


suoin^ 


31Z20M 


:)B 3J 


nssdjj 









^J »0 ac ^ -f 1^ O CO :C C: CI w C; 
r: C: r- r^ -f o r^ X 3: O o« CO "t* • 

„ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ /^v-j r^l rv| c-l . 




X c; o -- (M '^ i-r ;r t- X ^. C --^ c^ 

t^ X O — ' Cl ^^ 't' 'C -^ i^ X O '-' CM 








i-H t-i ^ CI 01 M Ci M (M O rc CO ^■^ CO 

t^ X c; o — o> CO 'T tc -,;; t^ X C5 o 




■^coco(N'-iooxxr^co»0'«t"co 

CC t^ X C-. O --I '-^ (M CO -^ >o cr 1^ X 






N 

H 



o 


i^ ;r "Tf oi o X 1- lo CO ^- o 1-- '^c 'f 
»<t ^ 1 ^ y^ C"- c; O '-1 oi CO CO "<*< »o o 


r-i c^- iO CI O I- "* t-i X »0 CO O I- -f 
»0 i:^ :C I- I - X C: O O --^ CJ CO CO -^ 


2 


-tOOCICl^t'-it^-'^OcOOlXiO 

-f lO «0 C: -^ 1^ X X r-. 3 O ^ "— CI 




w ;:; CI 1^ CO C2 »o o -^ ci x co r: lO 

-f f lO lO --C ->i I^ A X C- w- C O --^ 

f-H ^H 1— 1 




'- »0 X — t l^ O CI -f O X C CI CO 

■o 1!^ »o -^ --^ -^ 1- 1^ t- I- 1- X X X 




X -^ C. CO -^ C: CI »0 t^ Ci --< CI 't CC 

•c i tci - I - I - X y. y r r. r. r; c 




fee X X X X I- «? ic CO -r Ci 1- >o 
t^ X c; o ^ C4 CO f lO --CI- i>- X c; 

— < --^ "I CI Cl Cl CI C< Cl CI CI CI C) C4 




«-0 O »C O »C O tQ o »^ o >o o »c o 
CO f f »o »o c5 O I - 1 -. X 00 ?- c o 





Ci •— « CI CO »0 O 

f l^ C: ^ CO lO 

^ '-' -- CI CI CI 




t^ iC CO ^ O X ^ f 

CI -t -^ X O '-^ CO >c 

■ — '- CI CI CI CI 

I 




• O O »C O '0 ^ <0 Ci f Ci f • • 
O CI CO lO "-C X Ci O CI CO "O • • 

^ '-I ^ "-' --^ — r- CI CI CI CI • • • 




f I- O f r^ Q f r^ ^ -f t- — 1 f • 

Ci O CI CO -f 3 l-^ X O r-i CI >+ »o ■ • 

^ ^ — ^ — ^ ^ CI CI CI CI CI • 




ClfCCXO'-'COiOt^XQC-lfCC 

xciOr-.co-riooi-xO'^c^cc' 

i 


N 

8 

H 

o 
o 

XT" 

If) 

X 


1 

1 

'— < »— CI CI CI CI CI CO CO CO CO CO f f 

f^ X Ci O "-I CI CO f i.O '.C t^ X Ci C i 

1 

i 


O Ci 1^ iO »0 CO CI w Ci X CC lO CO CI 
•-C iC I- X Ci O ^-^ CI CI CO f lO :c I- 


u 


Ci eO CO O I^ f -— 1 X »0 C^ Ci O CO c; 
f o ;C r^ I- X Ci Ci O ^ '-^ CI CO -+ 




CO O -^ C) X -t< —< l>- CO. C: :C CI X -r 

-f »0 "O O :C l^ X X Ci C O — ' '-• CI 




f Ci CO CC Ci CI O l^ Ci '-' CO «^ 1^ Ci 
»0 iO w O CC 1^ I>. l^ 1^ X X X X X 




Ci lO O »0 O CO O X O CI fee X C". 
•C -e 1 - 1 - X X X X C: Ci Ci Ci C: CT. 




i 
CI X CI •e' Ci — 1 CO f ■ o o iC -je -e- 'r* ' 

Ci CO lO tC 1 - Ci O -^ CI CO f «0 ~ 1 - : 
ci CJ CI CI CI CI CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 




^ 1 



216 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 





4J 




t*-i 









§ 




■»— ( 




tjC 




72 




c 






§ 






.<u 










O 








•i~t 




32 


*j 






HJ 









3 





33 









C 




!_ 




G 




C 


-tj 












rt 




o o 






^£ 




S-a 


J, 


fl 4J 


<^M 




c 


CUT 









0£ 














cti u 




k> 


^ 






-^ o 
ti E 


c 



^ K 




^« 






•-_a 

















"(N 







M 


c'° 








o-^ 




^tc 




.5 = 


■u 


o- 





b '£ 





J; .2 




0) 1- 




&:^ 






4-J 













10 


1 


JO odue:)stq 


JR^UOZUOI^ 


lUK3i;C^ 


JO ODUE^SIQ 


l«DnaoA 


•UTiM Jad 


paSjBqosiQ 


suoipo 


a^zzo^si 


:^E aa 


nssajj 









i_3^ ::;;::::::; ; 
















l^ (M lO • 

^ -M (M -M 




M '^ Tt ^ iC 

-H " — 1 !M C^J M 




•<* (M X> CC "* iM 

<M -^ 00 Ci i-H CC lC 

^ ^ ^ ,_, ^ rvi CS5 (M 




^ ,— I ,_- ,—1 T— r-^ ^ jvl -M -M • • • ■ 


N 
N 



z 


c; 3 — ■^C -^ iC :r X cr. C^ cc -* :c 
T-^ — T- . ^ — — r— M -M 71 C^l 'N 


c 


i^ X c~. 1^ 01 cc "* :C 1^ Ci --H 




t^ >0 CC r- ! c; t^ »0 CO -— ! C: 1^ »o '^ <M 

lO :^ t-- X X c: C -- C^J C^l c^'j -^T iC c£ 




X iC (M X "-"^ (M cr: -^C ^r w CC I> 

rt* ic ;;; ^ t- X X cr. ' c^i re re 




^^'^t^O'^^C:r->CC»-'^XC;C~'l?C 
•It ^ c^ t- 1- 1- 1^ X X X X C: C: C^ 




^ i^ i^ X X X Ci c; c; Ci c: c; w 




t- rr< T— ! |> cc t^ (M i-'^ Ci <M ■* <© X 
i.^Ci'-HCO'^t^Ol^OO'-jCO^iOCO 
'M(MrococccccCcO'*'^"^-'^'«rrp 




lO IC LO L'^ IC Lt 

CO -^ '^ ic L?? w w t— t^ X X c^ 0^ 



iM 



X CC^ 

cr. c<i >^c 

" !M -M 



(M O r-i LCt) O 
l^ C3 <N "^ t^ 
I— ' i— i !M CI C^l 



O iO t^ X o c 
■*■ O X O (M lO 
r— ^H -- c-1 'M 'M 



O l~- "* -— ■ X Lt c<l C: :r: 
'^1 CC Lt t>- X O d CO >^ 
-^ — ^ — ^ -M r^l C^l CI 



C: O C^l CO -^^ :C I-' X w >— i "M -^ L-^ 



l^ !>. r^ ;0 O CC >-0 »0 i-O -^ "^ CO CO CO 
:^ I— X cr. O >-* CI CO -* »C w t^ 00 C; 



rr <M O X ^ CO T-. C; t^ ^ d O X ST! 
• O :^ r- !>• X C; O O T— ci CO -^ 'I- lO 



■^1 o o "^ t^ Ci '^i "^ w X o 01 *+ ^ 

■b -^ I- i^ 1^ 1- X X X X Ci C: Ci C: 



l'N^'^ClCOt^OO-l>^t~-OC?^-< 

! i; -.^ i^ 1- X X cr. C5 c c; c; o 



— < CO 

o o 



OCOiCOOiOCOOt^-^CiiCO-^ 
■rt<COXO(M^wXC5T-HO^'=*^COt-. 
CO CO O^ rtl -* -^ ■'f "* "^ '<t »C >C i^ O 



co-^'T-i-OLOwwr^r-xxcsCiO 



V} -*^ *^ 



PriNciplcs (ukJ Practice of Phimbuig 



217 




Fiji-. 300 
Siaiiu'is*' Twin Connect ion 



Siamese Twin Connections. — A Siamese Twin Con- 
nection is shown in Fig. 106. A flap valve, a, closes one 
opening when pressure is applied to the other, and stands 
open as shown in the illustration when water is being forced 
throught both openings. 

Fire Hose. — A very convenient hose for use in short 
lengths in buildings is underwrit- 
ers' linen hose. It will withstand 
almost any pressure likely to be 
subjected to and, being flexible, 
can be neatly coiled or folded into 
a very small space. The size of 
hose generally used for this pur- 
pose is 21/2 inches diameter. For 
lengths of more than 25 feet, for 
real fire fighting, a smooth rub- 
ber-lined hose is the best to use, and in no case should the 
hose be less than 21/^ inches in diameter, if it is 50 feet or 
longer, for a smaller hose will have only about one-half the 

effective range. For instance, 
with 80 pounds pressure, 250 feet 
of 2V2-irich unlined linen hose 
will have an effective height of 
stream of 42 feet, while under the 
same pressure, and with the same 
length, a 2-inch unlined linen hose 
will have an effective height of 
only 20 feet. 

The superiority of smooth- 
lined hose over rough linen hose, 
for fire protection, also the loss 
in range due to friction in long 
lengths of hose can be judged 
from the following statement 
based on experiments, where the 
static pressure was 80 pounds, 
and pressure at the hydrant when the hose was playing, 70 
pounds per square inch. With a IVij-inch nozzle, the heights 
of effective fire streams were : 




IMg. 107 
Hose RtM'l 



218 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

With 50 feet of 2V2-inch linen hose 73 feet 

With 250 feet of 2y2-inch linen hose 42 feet 

With 500 feet of 21/9-inch linen hose 27 feet 

With 50 feet of best and smoothest 2V2-inch 

rubber lined hose 81 feet 

With 250 feet of best and smoothest 21/2-inch 

rubber lined hose 61 feet 

With 500 feet of best and smoothest 21/2-inch 

rubber lined hose 46 feet 

This shows the importance of having fire lines suffi- 
ciently large to maintain a high pressure and supply a large 
volume of water when all the outlets are in use, and having 
the fire lines at such points that long lines of hose will not 
be required. 

Hose Reels. — Each length of hose should be neatly 
folded or coiled on a rack or hose reel provided for that pur- 
pose and attached to the wall or fire pipes close to the valve 
outlet. A swing hose reel is shown in Fig. 107. It is sup- 
ported from the fire stand-pipe by a hinged clamp that per- 
mits the reel to turn in many directions. A li/g-inch 
smooth nozzle is the best to use in connection with fire lines. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 219 

PART III 

PURIFICATION OF WATERS 



CHAPTER XXIII 
FILTRATION 



Rapid Sand Filtration 

Theory of Filtration. — Water for municipal supply 
may be classed, according to the source from which it is 
obtained, as surface water or as ground water. Waters 
obtained from streams, rivers, lakes, or impounding reser- 
voirs are surface waters; generally such waters are soft, 
and when filtered are the best kind of waters for both 
domestic and for industrial purposes. As surface water 
exists in nature, however, it is never organically pure and 
seldom clear; it generally carries considerable matter both 
in suspension and in solution and sometimes is contaminated 
by specific germs of disease. The amount of suspended 
matter in surface water varies considerably, being greatest 
after heavj' rains which wash the finely divided soil and 
earth down into streams, lakes and reservoirs. Water that 
contains large quantities of matter in suspension is unsuit- 
able for domestic and for most industrial purposes and 
should be filtered before using. 

Filtration. — Filtration is both a straining and a 
biological process in which most of the suspended matter 
and part of the hardness, color, and organic matter in 
raw water are removed. This is effected by passing the 
raw water through a thick bed of fine sand that is covered 
by a still finer jelly-like layer which entangles and holds 
any suspended matter brought in contact with it. The 
efficiency of a filter depends largely on this jelly-like layer, 
and a filter is not at its best until a suitable layer has 
formed. Under ordinary conditions to naturally form such 
a layer would take about twenty days, and to obviate such 
delay and bring a filter to its full bacterial efficiency in from 



oon 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



twenty to thirty minutes, coagulants are used to artificially 
produce the jelly layer. 

The coagulants generally used are sulphate of alumina 
(common alum) and sulphate of iron. When sulphate of 
alumina is added to water it decomposes into its component 
parts, sulphuric acid and alumina ; the sulphuric acid com- 
bines with lime, magnesia, or any other base present in the 
water, while the alumina forms a flak\' precipitate that 
gathers together and holds whatever suspended matter it 
encounters, thus forming in a few hours a layer that with- 
out the use of coagulant would require weeks to form. The 
thicker the layer of sediment, the greater the bacterial 
efficiency of a filter, but usually after from twelve to twenty- 
four hours' operation, the sediment layer becomes so thick 
that sufficient water cannot pass through, and the filter bed 
must then be cleaned. 

Gramty Type Filter. — A filter of the subsidence grav- 
ity type is shown in Fig. 108. Unfiltered water, to which 

coagulant has been 
added, enters the sub- 
sidence basin be- 
neath the filter and 
usually tangent to 
the circumference, as 
experiment has dem- 
onstrated that a ro- 
taiy motion conduces 
to greater and more 
rapid sedimentation. 
From the subsidence 
basin water rises 
through the hollow 
vertical axis, h, and 
overflows to the filter 
bed through which it 
percolates to the sys- 
tem of under drains below. The copper float, a. in the filter 
tank automatically regulates the supply of water and thus 
maintains a uniform head, while the automatic controller, e, 




Pig. 106 
GravitT Filter 



r^riHciphi!! (ut(J Practice of Plumh'ni(f 



221 



oil the outlet or pure Avater pipe regulates the rate of 
filtration. 

When the filter bed is dirty it is cleaned by reversing: 
the How of water through the filter bed and thoroughly 
loosening the sand. This is efl:ected by pumping filtered 
water into the sand bed through the outlet pipe, and when 
the sand is thoroughly loosened revolving the iron rakes, 
thus breaking up the jelly layer on top of the sand and stir- 
ring up the entire filter bed so all the grains of sand will 
be exposed to the scouring action of the water. The wash 
water and dirt from the filter bed overflow the filter tank 
into the annular space between the tw'o tanks, and are car- 
ried out through the valve, h, to the sewer. For a few^ 
minutes after a filter bed is washed, its efi[iciency is greatly 
lowered, so for a short 
time after starting, the 
water is allowed to fil- 
ter to waste through 
the valve, c. After suf- 
ficient water has run to 
waste to insure a good 
filtrate, valve c is clos- 
ed, valve d opened and 
filtered water discharg- 
ed to the clear water 
tank through the con- 
troller, e. To clean the 

filter bed, valves c and (/ are closed, valve / opened and air 
and water alternately forced through the system of collect- 
ors, g, to the filter bed. 

Coagulant Pump. — To secure the best results the 
amount of coagulant used must be proportioned to the con- 
dition of the water; the amount varies from one-quarter 
grain to two grains per gallon, the exact amount for any 
water being determined by experiment. If sufllcient coagu- 
lant is not fed to the raw water, it will result in an inferior 
filtrate, and if too much coagulant is used, it will not only 
increase the cost of operation, but coagulant will pass 
through the filter bed to the delivery mains. Some waters 




('<>.-i;rnljint rump 



222 



Pidnciples and Practice of Pliimhlng 



are so soft that insufficient base is present for coagulant to 
react upon. When such is the case, a base, usually of lime, 
is also added to the raw ^^'ater. 

To feed coagulant to the raw water, some form of 
pump or apparatus is required that will be automatic in 
operation and feed a measured quantity of coagulant pro- 
portional to the quantity of water. A meter pump for this 
purpose is shown in Fig. 109. A coagulant solution of the 
required strength is mixed in wooden coagulant tank, a, 
which is connected by feed pipes to a meter-actuated duplex 
pump, h. 

The meter measures the quantity of raw water passing 
through; the raw water operates the pumps which dis- 
charge a proportional quantity of solu- 
tion into the raw water. All working 
parts of a pump or other coagulant ap- 
paratus should be made of bronze to 
withstand the corroding eifects of sul- 
phate of alumina or sulphate of iron, 
which energetically attacks and de- 
stroys iron. 

Filtration Controllers. — ^After 
filter beds have been cleaned the rate of 
filtration, for a while, is much faster 
than at other times, and is often too 
great for efficient results. Under work- 
ing conditions an excessive rate of fil- 
tration might disturb the jelly layer and 
permit raw water to pass through with 
but little filtration. To regulate the rate of filtration, auto- 
matic controllers. Fig. 110, are now generally used. In this 
type of controller the outlet is fitted with removeable bush- 
ings that regulate* the discharge to the desired velocity; if 
the rate of filtration then becomes greater than can be dis- 
charged, water will fill the controller box and raise the float, 
thus throttling the balance valve and reducing the flow to 
the required rate. 

Efficiency of Gravity Filters. — The bacterial effi- 
ciency of gravity filters depends upon the use of coagulants. 




Fig. 110 
Filtration Controller 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 22S 

If clear water for industrial purposes is wanted, it may be 
had by filtering though sand without coagulant, but for 
domestic water supply, where bacterial purity is required, 










coagulants must be used. The tabulated report of chem- 
ical and bacterial tests of gravity water filters, at Lorain, 



224 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



^ = •" iC = .C O 3 

C ^ - = O 3 C 



P3j3?nj 

J31B;YV JO snonBO 


o_ O ~_ C_ X ^_ ^_ 
X* r-." (^' — ' — ^r TT 

O^ T O^ \r> T — r^\ 
"* ''i t 't. t. '^. "t. 




-r- C C C i^ C X 
>C y. LT. ■"" '-•'. C "". 


snojjaj^ JO lunorav 


2.52 
2 . 96 
2 . 99 
2.62 
2 . 80 
2.67 
2.76 


00 

o 5 

o = 


J3JB,VV 

pajainH 


.Absent 
Absent 
Absent 
y\bsent 
y\ljsent 
Absent 
Absent 


-laj^AV 
p^nddv 


Present 
I'resent 
Present 
I're.sent 
I're.sent 
Present 
Present 


c 

1 

S 
a 

31 


pailddy 
A^ipiqjnx 


5 c ^ 5 ^ 3 -*■ 

^1 ■r^i — — — — 


-131^ AV P^Rd 
-dy auuojiqj 


17.5 
1 .S . 
MO 
10.0 
14 .S 
18.0 
15.8 




c c 5 o 5 o o 

z z z z z z z 


uoii snoxiaj 


z z z z z z z 


>. 


P3J3:HTJ 


77.0 
70.0 
70.0 
72.0 
78.0 
82.0 
74.8 


paqddv 


78.0 
79.0 
81 .0 
81.0 
82.0 
84.0 
81 .0 


ubnonpa^" 

3STJ1U33J3J 


99 . 67 
<)9 . 66 
99 . 79 
99. 79 
98.82 
99 . 62 
99 . 40 
96 . 50 
99. 16 
99 . 64 
99.32 
99.53 
99. 74 
99 . 80 
99.07 
<)9 . 60 
99.74 
99 06 
99. 79 
99.71 
99. 70 
99.92 
99.75 
99.73 
99 65 




jaiEAV 
paj3i[tj 


XOf^iXC'tOCC-rOCr-i^^i-fO-i-X'^rOCXO-*?^ 
"T — r^JC^C^XXf^i^. C'C^f^v't — X^C'M<^3''t'~0'-f^X 


J31EA\ 

psflddv 


X_ ^.^ X. (^_^ C-_ t-- X f^. -t -t — X. r-._ C^_ X. t-- i/-^ 1-- -r f^_^ t-._^ r-._ -c X^ ^l 
O 1^' o" r-T •+ X O '^" r^" O X* t^" ^" f^* """ '^ c" X* ir 1^' O r-T x" cT P-T 


jnoH 


1.15 p. in. 

4.00 1). m. 

5.00 )). ni. 

9.30 ]). in. 
11.00 a. in. 

1.00 p. ui. 

2 . 30 p. m. 

5.30 p. in. 
12.00 in. 

2.15 p. in. 

4.00 )). m. 

5.00 p. in. 

7 . 00 a. in. 

8.20 a. m. 
11.00 a. in. 

2.00 p. 111. 

1.00 I), ni. 

5.00 p. in. 

7.00 p. m. 

9.30 I), in. 

4.00 p. in. 

5.00 p. 111. 

7.00 p. in. 

9.00 |). in. 




000< 


3 'MDJBK 


r^t^r^r^XX«X??C'C-CCCO — — -* — ■M'NiMr^^ j 



_ T-- UO 






cS p 



9 a-: ^ "- 






- — «; 






^ "J j3 o 5 '^^ = -z 7 ^ 

•3 ''41=! ^s.^^> 




^ XX- 



^ ^ X tt-r ■- ~ .2' X ^ 5 - 



Prixciplcfi (1)1(1 Practice of Phtmbing 



225 



itt^o 



Ohio, given in Table LVII, will serve to show the efficiency 
of rapid sand filters. 

A plan of a filter house for a small city plant, showing 
the layout of filters, piping and apparatus, is illustrated in 
Fig. 111. 

Pressure Filters. — Pressure filters are enclosed in 
water-tight chambers, so that water can be driven through 
the filter bed by hy- 
draulic pressure. A 
Jewell pressure filter of 
the settling basin type is 
shown in Fig. 112. This 
filter is constructed and 
operated similar to the 
Jewell gravity type, 
from which it diflfers 
only by being enclosed 
in a water-tight case. 
Pressure filters are not 
as efficient as gravity 
dlters, but owing to the 
ease with which they 
can be attached to a 
water supply system 
they are extensively 
used for house filters. 
Usually pressure filters 
are connected to the 
service pipe in the cel- 
lar, and all water used 
in the building passes 
through them. When so 
installed they should be provided with a by-pass to permit 
unfiltered water being supplied to fixtures in the building in 
case the filter is cut out. The bacterial efficiency of pressure 
filters like that of gravity filters depends upon the use of 
coagulants. When water is to be used for manufacturing 
purposes, however, a clear filtrate can be obtained without 
coagulants. An automatic apparatus is used to feed coagu- 
lant to pressure filters. 




I'ifssiilr I'iltri- 



226 P7'i7iciples and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XXIV 
SOFTENING OF WATER 



Economy of Soft Waters. — Throughout the Missis- 
sippi Valley and in other parts of the United States where 
municipal water supplies are obtained from artesian wells 
drilled to the underlying St. Peter or Potsdam sandstone, 
the water is permanently, and in some localities, both tem- 
porarily and permanently hard. This is due to the fact that 
in those regions the geological formation of the upper strata 
is limestone, and in percolating through the limestone, the 
water, which originally was soft, dissolves from rock, car- 
bonates or sulphates of lime or magnesia. The solvent 
capacity of water for carbonates and sulphates of lime is 
greater when the water is cold ; therefore, deep well waters 
in limestone regions usually are saturated with lime or 
magnesia, and when heated in water tanks or boilers to a 
temperature greater than 140 degrees Fahrenheit, the point 
of saturation is lowered and lime is precipitated or liber- 
ated and forms a hard scale or incrustation in waterbacks 
and boilers. The eifect of boiler incrustation is to shorten 
the life of a boiler and decrease the efficiency of the appa- 
ratus while m service. 

It is accepted by good authority that: 

1/16-inch lime scale means a loss of 13 per cent, ^f fuel, 
^'jj-inch lime scale means a loss of 22 per cent, of fuel. 
^4 -inch lime scale means a loss of 38 per cent, of fuel. 
%-inch lime scale means a loss of 50 per cent, of fuel, 
^/^-inch lime scale means a loss of 60 per cent, of fuel. 
•54-inch lime scale means a loss of 91 per cent, of fuel. 

'Utese values are probably a little high, but making due 
allowance for inaccuracies the table still serves to show the 
enormous waste of coal due to boiler incrustation. 

Incrustation of waterbacks and water heaters not only 
decreases their efficiency while in service, but is also a 
source of expense for repairs. In limestone regions water- 
backs and heaters become choked with lime and require 



Pri}iciph's and Pravticc of Phnnbiinj 



221 



clcaiiiiiK at certain intervals of time ranging from one to 
six months. 

In the household, the increased consumption of soap 
to soften hard water is a further item of expense. The 
amount of commercial soap required for this purpose, with 
waters of different degrees of hardness, can be seen in 
Table LVIII. 



TABLE LVIII. Soap Required to Soften Water 





1° 


3° 


4° 


8° 


12° 


16° 


Gallons of 


Hardness 


Hardness 


Hardness 


Hardness 


Hardness 


Hardness 


Water 


Soap 


Soap 


Soap 


Soap 


Soap 


Soap 




Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


100 


0.110 


0.3o7 


.-170 


.052 


1.428 


1.001 


1.0(X) 


1.10 


3.57 


4.70 


0.52 


14.28 


19.04 


UMXK) 


11.00 


35.7 


47. G 


05.2 


142.8 


190.4 


1(H).(KX) 


IIO.(K) 


357 . 


476. 


052 . 


1428. 


1904. 


l,0(K).(XX) 


1100.00 


3570. 


4760. 


0520. 


14280. 


19010. 



Many industrial concerns, like breweries, paper mills, 
distilleries, refineries, ice factories and laundries, require 
soft water, not only for boiler feed, but also for industrial 
jnirposes, and use some modification of the Clark-Porter 
water softening process. 

The Clark process consists of adding lime water to 
temporarily hard water to remove the carbonates of lime 
(U* magnesia. The lime acts upon the bicarbonates in the 
hard water, releasing the extra carbonic acid gas required 
to form the bicarbonates, and precipitates the carbonates 
of lime which are insoluble. 

The Porter process consists of adding soda ash to 
permanently hard water to remove the sulphates of lime 
and magnesia, and stirring up the treated water with pad- 
dles to mix it. When soda ash is added to permanently 
liard water, it reacts upon the suli)hates of lime and mag- 
nesia, decomposes them and forms insoluble carbonates 
which are precipitated. 

The reagents generally used in water softening are 
caustic lime (common quick lime) and soda ash. Other 
reagents can be used, but the above are generally selected 



«>o< 



Principles and Practice of Phumhing 



on account of their cheapnes;s and because they are readily 
obtainable in any market. 

Water S ftenting Apparatus. — ^An apparatus for 
soften:": .- ^ : nsists of a mixing^ chamber for the chem- 
ical reageni^ a settling basin for the treated water after 
the reagent is added and a filter to remove from the soft- 
ened water the base acted uiwn by the chemicaL 

There are two general arrangements of apparatus for 
softening water. One arrangement is known as the closed 
or pressure system, and the other arrangement, as the 
gravity system. 

The general arrangement of the Scaif e pressure system 
^s used for softening feed water for boilers is shown in 
Fig. 113. 







Feed water enters the open heater, a, where some of 
the temporary hardness is removed by raising the temper- 
ature to 200 or 210 degrees Fahrenheit, thus driving off 
some of the free carbonic acid gas and precipitating car- 
bonates of lime and magnesia on removable pans inside of 
the heater. From the heater the water is forced by the 
boiler feed pump, 6. into a large precipitating tank, c, where 
the chemical reagents are introduced by means of two small 
pumps, d, d. In the precipitating tank most of the remain- 
ing carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia are pre- 
cipitated ; some of the lighter particles, however, are carried 



PriHclplcs (ukI Practice of Plnmhhig 



229 



in suspension to the filters, e, c, where along with other im- 
])iirities they are removed. 

When this system is used for industrial or for domestic 
purposes, the heater and feed water pumps may be omitted 
iind the hard water discharged directly into the precipitat- 




Vii-. 114 
rjrnvily W;ilcr Soflcnin^jr Aj)i);ii"atiis 

ing tank. When the heater is omitted, however, a larger 
quantity of reagent is required. 

A gravity apparatus for water softening is shown in 
Fig. 114. In this system of ti-eatment, lime is slacked in 
the trough, a, aftei- which it is emptied into the saturator, b, 



230 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

where it can be diluted to the required consistency and be 
kept agitated by revolving paddles. In a tank, c, a solution 
of soda ash is prepared, v/hich, like the lime solution, is 
agitated by revolving paddles operated by the water motor, 
d. Lime solution is fed to the raw water through pipe e. 
and soda solution is fed to the raw water through pipe /. 
Ey means of an automatic proportional water motor, a 
ineasured quantity of water and proportional amounts of 
either lime, soda, or both lime and soda, are introduced into 
the standpipe, g, the water flowing in through pipe, h. 
Eaffie plates in the standpipe thoroughly mix and agitate 
the treated water, thus aiding precipitation. The lime 
deposited in standpipe, g, is washed out through the valved 
pipe, ?. The treated water overflows the top of the stand- 
pipe, passes under the baffle plate, /, up through the filters 
and overflows through trough, k, and pipe, I, to a collecting 
or storage reservoir. Sludge from precipitation in the tank 
settles to the cone-shaped bottom and is washed out through 
pipe, m. A float, n, controls the supply valve, o, thus mak- 
ing the apparatus automatic in operation. 

When the water to be treated is obtained from a 
stream or other surface source where the conditions of the 
water are not uniform, it is better to use an intermittent 
type of apparatus. By this system a large quantity of 
water is put in a tank and treated ; while that tank is being 
emptied, a second tank is filled, the water tested and the 
right proportion of reagent mixed to treat it. In this man- 
ner each tank of water is separately tested and the correct 
proportion of chemicals added. 

The Permutit Process of Softening Water. — The 
Permutit process for softening water is simple of operation 
and applicable for both domestic and industrial uses. The 
softening is accomplished automatically by passing the hard 
water through a tank, as shown in Fig. 115, containing 
porous but insoluble crystals of aluminum-sodium silicate, 
where an exchange takes place between the lime and mag- 
nesia in the water, and the sodium forming the base of the 
crystals. 

When the sodium base of the Permutit becomes ex- 



Principles and Practice of Phnvhinrj 



231 



hausted, as it does after a given quantity uf water has been 
i:oftened by it, it is necessary to renew the sodium. This is 
done by adding a solution of common salt to the Permutit, 
which by mass action drives out the calcium and magnesium, 
leaving sodium in their place. The calcium and mag- 
jiesium salts are run off through the drain pipes. This 
piocess can be carried on indefinitely, as the life of the 
Permutit is unlimited. The only cost of operation is the 
cost of common salt. Usually the regenerating process, as 
it is called, is carried on at night. 



n /A/ Tseo 



€A6e COCf< 







V-zK^/f ti^^r^r/? /A/ccT 



-^/A/s/A/6 tv/iTr/f //^Lcr 



fi£(^£/^efij*T/N6 MLWe 






■ri/A/rs£o 






/f?/A/S/Af6 tV/iTC/f OurL£T 



V\'4. 11.") 
I'erimitit Ai)i)aratu.s for Sol'teiiinf^ Water 

The regenerating solution generally used contains 
about 10 per cent, of sodium chloride (common salt). This 
reaction also obeys the law of mass action, and since the 
Permutit has a greater affinity for calcium than for sodium, 
three to four times as much salt as is theoretically required 
is provided, and further to facilitate the action the solution 
is usually heated to 100 to 120 degrees P\ihrenheit. 

Admission of the solution to the filter is regulated auto- 
matically at a very slow^ rate to permit the solution thor- 



232 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

o uglily to penetrate the grains or zeolites. Admission 
occupies 4 to 5 hours and, when the charge is completely 
impregnated the solution is left in the filter for about the 
same period. The charge is then drained and washed 
thoroughly to remove all traces of salt. Since the regener- 
ative process is completed in about 8 hours, the installation 
of one filter will satisfy the demands of the ordinary plant, 
but where continuous service is required two filters will be 
necessary for alternate softening and regeneration. 

Data of Operation. — Water of any degree of hard- 
ness may be softened by passing it through a layer of 
Permutit 24 to 40 inches in depth at a rate of 10 to 16 feet 
an hour; and the speed of filtration usually adopted lies 
between these limits. The permissible speed of filtration 
can be raised by increasing the depth of Permutit charge, 
but it is limited by the fact that for efficient action the water 
must have time to penetrate the interior of the grains. The 
extreme limits of speed are: for water containing 0.01 per 
cent, lime, approximately 27 feet; 0.02 per cent., 16 feet; 
and 0.03 per cent., 10 feet an hour. The volume of water 
treated depends, of course, on the area of the charge. 

The filtering apparatus shown in the illustration is of 
the gravity type, but a closed type for pressure working is 
employed in some cases. In either type, the charge of 
Permutit rests on a bed of crushed flint and a similar bed of 
flint, carried on a perforated plate, is placed in the upper 
part of the filter to prevent the escape of Permutit during 
the regenerative process. 

The principle of operation of the Permutit process is 
based on the peculiar properties of zeolites. Natural 
zeolites are combinations of aluminum and other bases with 
silicic acid. The peculiarity of zeolites is the property of 
changing their bases for others. That is, a zeolite formed 
of silica, aluminum and sodium or salt can exchange its 
base of salt for a base of lime or magnesia; and this prop- 
erty is made use of in the softening of water by the Permutit 
process. 

The zeolites used are artificial, and in the moist condi- 
tion are of a granular or flaky form with a lustre like that 



Principles ami Practice o/ Plumbing 233 

of mother-of-pearl. Owing to its porosity, in the dry state 
the material readily absorbs about 50 per cent, of water, 
and must therefore be stored in a dry place safe from frost. 

The water flowing to Permutit water softener must be 
clear, free from iron and mechanical impurities, and the 
temperature should not be more than 100 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

The artificial zeolites used in this process are obtained 
by fusing together feldspar, kaolin, clay and soda in definite 
proportions. It will be seen, therefore, that they partake 
of the nature of a very porous earthenware or porcelain. 



234 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XXV 
STERILIZING WATER WITH ULTRA VIOLET RAYS 



The sterilization of water by means of the ultra violet 
rays is based on the well-known germicidal action of sun- 
light. What is known as the white light of the sun is really 
the result of a blend of all colors of the rainbow. This 
white light can be broken up into its component parts by 
passing a beam of the light through a triangular glass prism 
vv'hich gives the solar spectrum. 

Of the visible colors, the blue or violet is at one end of 
the spectrum, and the red at the other extreme. Beyond 
the visible spectrum are in\isible light waves known as the 
ultra rays. Beyond the violet rays are the ultra violet rays, 
which of course are invisible. 

All light is due to wave vibrations. The difference in 
color is due to a difference in wave length. Of the visible 
colors the shortest are those of the violet. Just beyond the 
violet the ultra violet waves are even shorter and more 
intense in their vibrations. 

The ultra violet rays are the mast destructive to bac- 
terial life. The well-known sterilizing action of sunlight is 
due to the short wave vibrations of the violet, ultra violet 
and other rays it contains. 

The exact action or reaction which proves so destruc- 
tive to bacterial life is not known. It is believed, however, 
that the ultra violet rays first produce a coagulation of the 
protoplasm, which results finally in an entire disappearance 
lif the body of the germ. Exhaustive tests show that the 
l>acteria are killed, not merely shocked into a dormant state 
with the possibility' of future recovery. They also show 
that the bacterial destruction is due directly to the ultra 
violet rays, not through the medium of oxidation by chemi- 
cals formed by the contact of the rays with the water, nor 
by any other indirect means. The temperature of the water 
has no effect on this bacterial action. The same germicidal 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



235 



action is found when clear ice is subjected to ultra violet 
rays as when water of any temperature is exposed. 

It requires only a comparatively short time for ultra 
violet rays to exercise their g-ermicidal action on water- 
borne bacteria. The approximate length of exposure to the 
ultra violet rays required for complete destruction can be 
found in Table LIX. 

TABLE LIX. Time Required for Ultra Violet Ray Steril- 
ization 



Kinil of Bacteria 



Staplu lo<'orcus Aureus. 

B. (Volora 

B. 'r\-|i]ioid 

B. Dysentery (!*higo). . 
B. Dvsenterv (Dopter). 

B.Coli ". 

Aerogenes Capsiilatiis. . 
B. Tetanus 



Exposure Reriuired 
for Complete 
Sterilization 



12 Seconds 

17 Feeonds 

18 Seconds 

17 Seconds 
16 Seconds 

1 8 Seconds 
21 Seconds 
40 Seconds 



The depth of water that ultra violet rays will sterilize 
depends upon the strength of the light and length of expos- 
ure. In practice, as the exposure must be comparatively 
short, the film of water must be correspondingly thin. In 
ultra violet ray sterilizing apparatus the film of water flow- 
ing past the light varies with the type and size of the appa- 
ratus, from one-half inch to eight inches in depth. 

Ultra Violet Ray Apparatus. — An ultra violet ray 
apparatus is simply a housing or casing with a transparent 
cylinder or tube inside which separates the light from the 
water. The water flows over and is in contact with this 
tube, while the light is inside of it safe from contact with 
the water. This transparent cylinder is made of quartz, 
ice and quartz being the only known solid substances which 
will permit the ultra violet rays to pass through them. A 
glass cylinder in this place would prevent sterilization, for 
the ultra violet rays would not pass through the glass. 

The quartz tube is made water tight by stuffing boxes 
packed with rubber and protected by aluminum heat rings. 



236 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

The water flows over this quartz cylinder and is thus 
exposed to the light from the lamp within the cylinder. The 
space between the apparatus housing and the outside of the 
quartz cylinder varies from one-half inch to eight inches, or 
if deeper, baffle plates are provided to stir the water and 
turn it over during its passage, and narrow the passage so 
water cannot flow through without having been exposed to 
the light in a comparatively thin stream. 

The rays are produced in an ultra violet ray apparatus 
by a mercur>^ vapor lamp — a mercurj' vapor arc in a 
vacuum. The lamp consists of a straight quartz tube with 
a bowl at one end. like a clay pipe. This tube is partially 
filled with mercury. Mercurv^ is an electric conductor. 
When, therefore, two ends of the lamp are connected in an 
electric circuit, electricity flows through the mercury-, but 
without producing any ultra violet rays. To form the mer- 
cury vapor arc the mercurj^ bridge must be broken. This 
is done by raising the stem of the lamp slightly, either auto- 
matically or by hand. A short mercury vapor arc is then 
produced, just as the electric spark spans the distance be- 
bveen the carbon in an arc light. The pressure of the 
mercur\' vapor gradually forces the mercury up in the bowl, 
until in a few minutes no mercury- is left in the stem. The 
mercury vapor arc then extends the full length of the tube, 
and ultra violet rays of great intensity are produced. 

The mercury- lamp is placed inside of the quartz cylin- 
der in the ultra violet ray apparatus, and is fitted up to tip 
automatically once the current is turned on. 

The ultra violet rays have no perceptible ett'ect on the 
water treated, other than their germicidal action. The 
treatment does not change the temperature, taste, appear- 
ance, chemical or mineral properties. It does not charge 
with carbon dioxide, nor does it make the water "flat." 

For sterilization by means of ultra violet rays the 
water must be clear and free from suspended matter. If it 
is not, a bacterium might get behind or inside a suspended 
particle and escape exposure to the rays. If, therefore, the 
water is not clear, it must be filtered before sterilization. 
Simple filtration without coagulation may then be resorted 



Pruu'iplcs ami P met ice of Plnnih'niff 237 

to, the ultra violet rays affecting sterilization without add- 
ing an objectionable sulphate of iron or sulphate of alumina 
to the water. 

While water must be free from suspended matter and 
turbidity for successful treatment with ultra violet rays, a 
certain amount of color and turbidity are permissible, so 
long as the color is not a deep one, or the turbidity over 
fifteen parts per million. 

The "dosage" of application of the ultra violet rays is 
independent of the mineral or organic content of the water, 
and since no physical or chemical change is produced in the 
water by the ultra violet rays, a very heavy over-dosage 
beyond that theoretically required can be used, thereby giv- 
ing full protection against unusual conditions which arise in 
most public water supplies. 

Ultra violet ray apparatus are made in three types — 
portable, gravity and pressure. The pressure type is con- 
nected to the water supply system and the water flows 
through the apparatus under pressure. The gravity is an 
open type sterilizer through which the water flows by grav- 
ity under a very slight head. 



238 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



CHAPTER XXVI 

PREVENTION OF RUSTING IN WATER PIPES AND 

TANKS 



The treatment of water to prevent it rusting- pipes is 
not, strictly speaking-, a purification process, nor is it, like 
filtration and ultra violet ray sterilization, a sanitary pre- 
caution. It is purely an economic measure, like water 
softening, intended to prevent pecuniary loss. 

There are two methods of rust prevention, known re- 
spectively as De-Aerating and as Deoxidizing or Deactivat- 
ing. The two methods are wholly unlike each other, al- 
though thej' achieve the same result, the prevention of rust- 
ing or pitting of iron or steel water pipes and tanks. 
Neither system is applicable to steam or other piping sys- 
tems. They are used exclusively^ for water supply systems 
in buildings. 

Rust prevention is affected by removing the air or 
oxygen from the water before it reaches the distributing 
system. Air. while not an element of water, is a natural 
constituent of it. At atmospheric pressure and ordinary 
temperature, water will absorb four per cent, of its own 
volume of air. By increasing the pressure of water, its 
capacity for absorption is increased in direct proportion. 
That is, if the pressure be increased to two atmospheres, 
the temperature remaining unchanged, pure water will 
absorb eight per cent, of its volume of air. Under a head 
of 100 feet, a moderate pressure in water supplies, water 
will absorb twelve per cent, of its volume of air. Without 
the air that is dissolved in all natural waters, fish and other 
aquatic animals could not live, and all water vegetation 
would die. Without wind to create waves and ripples, the 
air would soon become exhausted from ponds and lakes. 
In like manner, without air in the water supplied to build- 
ings, the pipes would not rust, nor would iron of any kind 
rust in water from which all air was expelled. It is well 



Priifciplcs and Practice of Plumbing 239 

known to chemists that corrosion is directly proportional to 
the amount of free oxygen dissolved in water. 

While water under compression can absorb four per 
cent, of air for each atmosphere of pressure, it seldom con- 
tains more than four per cent., as that is the point of satura- 
tion at atmospheric pressure, which is the pressure at 
which it is taken into the system. The air is made up of 
.21 per cent, by volume of oxygen; .78 per cent, nitrogen, 
and .01 per cent, argon. It is the oxygen in the air that 
causes the corrosion, and with four per cent, of air in water 
the oxygen content would be .84 per cent., or almost one 
per cent. 

Water and iron alone do not produce rust. Iron and 
air alone cannot produce rust. What is needed is iron, air 
and water. Take away any one of these three essentials, 
and rust will be prevented. The iron or the water cannot 
be taken away in a water supply system, so in both deacti- 
vating and de-aerating the air — or dissolved oxygen — is re- 
moved. 

Rust occupies about ten times the volume of the iron 
which produced it. This accounts for small pipes being so 
badly choked they materially reduce the supply of water, 
particularly in the upper stories of buildings. 

The formation of rust is greater in the hot water sys- 
tem than in the cold water pipes. This is probably due to 
the fact that heating water lessens its absorption in direct 
proportion to the amount of heat applied. The relative 
volume of air absorbed is in all cases directly as the press- 
ure, and inversely as the temperature. Thus, as has 
already been stated, if the pressure be increased it will 
absorb more air, and if it be heated it will absorb cor- 
respondingly less air. 

The air or oxygen liberated by heat in the hot water 
system is free to attack the pipes. That is w^hy there is so 
much more trouble from hot water pipes pitting than from 
cold water pipes, and that is why rust prevention is applied 
generally to the hot water system and seldom to the cold, 
although the treatment is equally applicable to any water, 
hot, cold, fresh or salt. 



240 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



Deactivating or Deoxidizing Apparatus. — ^In the de- 
activating method of rust prevention, the apparatus is 
located in the basement or cellar near the heater, and water 
flows from the heater to the deactivating tank, while all its 
dissolved oxygen is liberated from the water and is ready 
to unite with anji:hing suitable for which it has an affinity. 
The deactivating tank is partially filled with iron strips 
which the water attacks, producing all the rust of which it 
is capable under the circumstances. If it did not expend its 
energy there, it would attack and pit the pipes. The tank 
is easily cleaned and charged with deactivating material 
whenever necessary. 




^t^^^^SSZl^ 



Fig. 116 
Deactivating Apparatus 



A deactivating system in which coal is used for fuel is 
shown in Fig. 116. From the coal heater, c, the heated 
water flows in the direction of the arrows to the deactivator, 
f/, then to the filter, /, with a by-pass direct to the building. 
When the hot water leaves the deactivating tank it contains 
rust. This rust is removed by the filter so that when the 
water enters the distributing system it is clean and prac- 
tically freed from oxygen. 

Water enters the system through the pipe a, passes 
through or by-passes around the coagulate tank, e, as the 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



241 



case may be, into the heater. The circulation pipe returns, 
as shown by the arrows, over the recording thermometer, g, 
and flows through the re-heater, h, then back to the house 
supply, b, again. 




Fig. 117 
Deactivating Apparatus 

In Fig. 117 is shown the same system in which steam 
coils take the place of the coal heater. Cold water enters 
through pipe, a, passing through or by-passing the coagulate 
tank, e, to the heater, c, which is provided with a steam coil. 
From the steam coil it passes to the deactivator, d, which 
is by-passed as in the preceding illustration. From the 
deactivator it flows to the filter to remove the rust, then out 
through b to the hot water distributing system. The tank, 
/i, is a steam heated re-circulation heater to boost the tem- 
perature of the water in the circulation pipe from the build- 
ing, so it can again mingle with the house supply without 
passing through the deactivator again. 

De-Aerating Apparatus. — The de-aerating process 
of rust prevention is based on the fact that very hot water 
cannot hold air in solution. It is assisted by the further 
fact that reducing the pressure, even of cold water, reduces 
the amount of air it can hold in solution. In de-activation 
the water is almost boiled in an open type of apparatus on 
the roof of a building, or above the highest outlet in the 



242 



Pi'inciples and Practice of Plumbing 



system. The treated water then flows direct to the hot 
water heater in the basement, thence to the hot water dis- 
tributing system. The deactivating apparatus can be 
located in the basement or sub-basement of a tall building, 
but its operation is not so satisfactory as when at the top of 
the building. Heating the water in open tanks at the top of 
the building removes about ninety per cent, of the dissolved 



JYVBMT TO 
VlATVOSPVERE 



cosrrROL-7 



STEAM 

SUPPLY- 




i^U 



Fig. lis 
De-aeratiDg Apparatus 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



24;i 



SrtAn Ljfttf 



Jrc^n RtTuifJiy 







oxygen. This reduces the corrosion to about one-tenth of 
the rate that would obtain with raw untreated water, giving 
to hot-water pipes a prolonged life with a ratio of about 
one to ten. 

A deaerat- 
ing apparatus is 
shown diagram- 
atically in Fig. 
118. Cold water 
enters the in- 
take chamber, /, 
flows up through 
the spiral coils, 
(J, through the 
lower part of 
the tank, where 
the treated wa- 
ter is stored 
ready to be 
drawn. In the 
storage com- 
partment the in- 
coming w a t e r 












-J 



•••••!• r-r-rry. 



iriiittriiiniii 



\n HI r.in il J ,Hfl ) t 1 t r-t-J-r^ tirr 



rii.iiiiintriitrt,,i>'rry.,,,,, 



rir It ,i,,,,i , I I , i> f t i-T- 



I r r ."yr 



III , . i ft r J r I 



, r I r ri r 1 1 1 ir ,r ri ' rr. i-r.' r f • rrr? mi J 



Ci/KULATlOM Jfrru/tttS 




■Sr-P4ss 



absorbs some of 
the heat from 
the treated wa- 
ter, thereby pre- 
paring it for the 
next stage in the 
coils, ]\. These 
coils are sur- 
rounded by 
steam, and the 
water is raised 
to a temperature 
of 207 degrees Fahrenheit, at which temperature it readily 
parts with the dissolved oxygen, which is liberated as the 
water falls over the baffle plates, A-, into the funnel, /, and 
through the duct, m, to the storage or exchange chamber. 



Fig. 119 
Mctliod of Installing: Dp-aprator 



244 Prrnciples and Practice of Plumbing 

The temperature of the water in the coils, h, is regulated 
by the automatic temperature control. .?. It parts with 
some of its heat, as before explained, to the water in the 
coils, g, and reaches the water heater in the cellar at a tem- 
perature of about 120 degrees Fahrenheit. 

The diagram, Fig. 119, shows the way a de-aerating 
apparatus is installed in a building with relation to the 
other parts of the water supply system. 



Principles and Practive of Plumbing 



245 



PART IV 

HOT WATER SUPPLY 



CHAPTER XXVII 
WATER HEATING APPARATUS 



Properties of Heat 

Transfer of Heat. — When two bodies of different tem- 
peratures are near each other a transfer of heat takes place 
from the hotter to the colder body. This tendency towards 
maintaining an equilibrium of temperature is universal and 
the transfer of heat may take place in any of three ways ; 
by conduction by coyivection or by radiation. 

Conduction is the progressive movement of heat 
through a substance without perceptible movement of the 
molecules ; if one end of a poker be held in a fire, the other 



TABLE LX. Absorption and Radiation of Heat 



Substance 



Lampblack 

Water 

Carbonate of lead 

Writing paper 

Marble , 

Isingla>«s 

Ordinarj' glass 

Ice 

Cast iron 

Wrought iron, polished 

Steel, polL'^hed 

Tin 

Brass, cast, dead polished 

Brass, hammered, dead polished. , 

Brass, cast, bright polished 

Brass, hammered, bright polished 

Copper, varnished 

Copper deposited on iron 

Copper, luimmered or cast 



Powers 



Radiating or 
Absorbing 



ICK) 

100 

100 

98 

93 to 98 

91 

90 

85 

25 

23 

17 

15 

11 

9 

7 

7 

11 

7 

7 



Reflecting 









2 
to 2 

9 
10 
lo 
75 
77 
83 
85 
89 
91 
93 
93 
SH 
93 
93 



246 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



260 



end will become heated by conduction. Water in a water- 
back or vessel becomes heated from the flames and hot 
gases of a fire by conduction of heat through the metal walls 
of the waterback or vessel. 

Convection is the transfer of heat by movement or cir- 
culation of the molecules of the substance to be heated. 
Water in a vessel placed on a stove is heated by local circula- 
tion of the water. Fluids and gases, such as water or air, 
can be heated only by convection. This is due to the fact 
that when heat is applied to a fluid, the parti- 
cles in contact with the heat expand in bulk, 
consequently become lighter in weight and are 
replaced by colder and denser particles. 

Radiation is the transmission of heat 
through space from a warm body to one of 
lower temperature. For example, the Earth 
is warmed by radiation from the Sun. Radiant 
heat does not heat the air through which it 
passes; it travels direct and in straight lines 
until intercepted, when it is reflected or ab- 
sorbed by this interceptive body. The cooler 
body will reflect or absorb or partly reflect 
and partly absorb all the heat rays it inter- 
cepts and the sum of the absorption and re- 
flection equals the total of the intercepted 
rays. 

Absorption and radiation are equal and 
opposite. The better the absorptive power 
of a substance the better radiating material 
it would make. Lampblack, which has absorbing and 
radiating powers rated at 100, is taken as the standard of 
comparison. In proportion as the reflecting power of a 
substance diminishes, its power to absorb or radiate heat 
increases. The absorbing, radiating and reflecting capacity 
of various substances are given in Table LX. 

Measurement of Heat. — The amount of heat trans- 
mitted to water is measured by the British Thermal Unit 
usually abbreviated B. T. U. A B. T. U. is the quantity of 
heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water 



Fig. 120 
Tbermomctov 
for Indicating 

Water 
Temperatures 



Pri}iciples (Did Practice of Plumbing 



247 



From 62 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit. In practice it is taken 
as the quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water 
1 degree Fahrenheit. 

Measurement of Temperature. — The temperature of 
water is measured by a mercury thermometer. For meas- 
uring water temperatures, thermometers, Fig. 120, should 
have a scale ranging from 60 degrees Fahrenheit to 270 
degrees Fahrenheit, and should be so constructed that when 
screwed into a fitting the mercury bulb, a, will project mto 
the pipe and thus be in contact with the hot water. 

Transmission of Heat. — The quantity of heat trans- 
mitted to water through a vessel or tube depends on the 
difference in temperature between the heating medium and 
the absorbing water, the thickness of the walls of the vessel 
or tube, and the material of which it is made. All other 
conditions being equal, copper pipes will transmit 50 per 
cent, more heat than iron pipes, and cast iron surfaces will 
transmit about 60 per cent, less than an equal area of iron 

TABLE LXI. Transmission of Heat 







Steam con- 


Jleat trans- 








densed per 


mitted per 








square foot per 


square foot per 








degree differ- 


degree differ- 








ence of tem- 


ence of tem- 




l'.\[ieri- 
menters 


Character of 
Surface 


perature per 
hour 


perature per 
hour 


Rcmajk.'i 




Heat- 


Evapo- 


Heat- 


Evapo- 








ing 


rating 


ing 


rating 








Pounds 


Pounds 


B.TLT. 


B.T.U. 




f 


Copper coils 


.292 


.981 


'M-y 


974 




I^uircns { 


2 Coppoi- coils 


• . • • 


1.20 




1120 






Copper cf)il 


.2t5S 


1.20 


2S0 


1200 




P«'ikiii.s 


Iron coil 




24 


.... 


215 


f 100 lbs. 
\ Pressure 


Pi'vKiiis 


Iron coil 




.22 




208 2 


/ 10 lbs. 
1 Pressure 


IV)\ 


Iron tube 


•i.'ir, 




2:;0 






Box 


Iron tiihe 


.196 




•2:\u 






Box 


Iron tube 


.200 




•_H)7 






Havrez 


Cast iron 














boiler 


077 


1 ( ).', 


■k'J 


100 





Krul's rockotbook. 



248 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



pipe surface. The relative transmission of heat for dif- 
ferent metals is shown in Table LXI. 

From the above table of experiments, Table LXII 
of average heat units transmitted through various sub- 
stances is adduced. The table is based on the assumption 
that the outer surface is clean and free from soot or ashes, 
and that the inner surface is free from incrustations of 
lime or other substances. 

TABLE LXII. Comparison of Different Heat Transmitting 

Surfaces 



Materials 


Heat transmitted per square 

foot of heating surface 

each hour for each degree 

Fahr. difference between the 

heating medium and the water 


Copper plate 

Copper pipe 

Wrought iron or steel pipe or surface 

Cast iron siu:face , 


275 B. T. U. 

300 B. T. IT. 

200 B. T. r. 

80B.T.IT. 



Temperature of Fires. — Temperature tests of a fire 
by observation can be told in a fairly exact manner by 
Table LXIIL 

TABLE LXIIL Temperature of Fires 



Appearance of Fire 


Approximate Temperature, Fahr. 


Red, just visible 

Red, duU 

Dull red, cherry 

Red, full cherry 


About 977 degiees 
About 1290 degrees 
About 1470 degrees 
About 1650 degrees 


Red, bright 


About 1830 degrees 


Orange, dull 

Orange, bright 


About 2010 degrees 
About 2190 degrees 


White heat 


About 2370 degrees 


White, welding 

^^^lite, dazzling 


About 2550 degrees 
About 2730 degrees 



Properties of Hot Water 

Expansion of Water. — When water at or above the 
temperature of 39.1 degrees Fahrenheit is heated it expands 
in volume. The temperature 39.1 degrees Fahrenheit is 
known as the point of maximum density. .When the water 



Pri)tci])lcs and Practice o/ Plumbnuj 249 

is at a 1()\\(U* temperaturo the application of heat causes it 
to contract in bulk and the application of cold causes it to 
expand. 

The expansion, weight, density and comparative vol- 
ume of pure water at dirterent temperatures can be found 
in Table LXIV. 

The increase in bulk of a given quantity of water can 
be found by the formula : 

\ =z — '-', in wliicli V rr final volumr of water, o =: original volume ol water, 

q 

e := coniparaliM- v(tlun»e ol walei at final lenii»eratiire, (( r= eoniparalive 
volume of water at ori<rinal temjieralure. 

Example— What will be the final volume in a vessel eontaining 40 gallons 
of water at 62 degrees Fahr. when raised to a temperature of 200 degrees Fahr. :* 

Solution — In Table LXIV it will be seen that the comparative volume of 
water at 62 degrees Fahr. is 1.00101 and at 200 degrees Fahr. 1.03889. Sub- 
stituting those values in the formula, 

y^ 40X103889 ^4151 g^Hons final volume.— Answer. 
1.00101 

The contraction in bulk of a given quantity of water 

oc 
can be found by the formula, V =^ — as in the former case, 

q 

with this difference, however, that the original temperature 
and volume in this case is the higher one, while the final 
temperature and volume is the smaller one. 

Example — What will be the final volume of 41.514 gallons of water that 
is cooled from 200 degrees Fahr. to 62 degrees Fahr.? 

^ 41.514 X 1.00101 .„ „ . 

Son TioN — ^ = 40 liallons.—Answer. 

1 .03889 

Boiling Point of Water. — The temperature at which 
water boils varies with the pressure. In a vacuum of 13.69 
pounds below atmospheric pressure water boils at a tem- 
perature of 102.018 degrees P^ahrenheit. At atmospheric 
pressure, which is generally taken as 14.7 pounds per 
.square inch, water boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. At 
15.31 pounds pressure above atmospheric pressure water 
boils at a temperature of 250.293 degrees Fahrenheit. The 



250 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 






























-S 




i-. 


















, 




o 


U 


/K 




o 


iw 
















S 




>o 


K 


5 




to 


•- o 


4> 

C. 
















4> 
P 




o 


V 

^ 


"o 


2 


'S 




41 














"H 






g 


3 


£ 


c- 


p 




en 


-• 71 












g 


o 




5 




rt 


m 


5 


i 






















;-. 


o 


Ui 


<y 


U 4) 




2£ *; 












o 


1^ 




a5 


a 


in 


a; 

a 


to 


^» 


a 


gS 












_2' 


•^^ 




t4- 






. O 


(U 


o 


£i o 
















'5 






= y c = 


3 
en 
-/> 


<u 

Z3 


1 ^ 




H 












^ 




f* 


«£:2 


C. 






a, J. 














t/. 


tt' £ 




3 


rt y 




4; 


. '^ 


C^ 














c 


S 5 






CO 3 C, 


CO 




w C. 


t» " 














'5 


'5 - 




3' 


- a, ~ 


£ 


O 


^ P 

— 3 


a ¥. 
















« 




U4 




H 




H 


r-i 




o 


X 




•— cc 1^ rT ;^T i^ 


X O "^ 


X — 






















^5-p 


'^ 




o c; c; -* X :c 


"^ re —- 


c: X re 


ei :C 


■^ ;C 


• O X 


c; l^ 




^ 




C5 


'^ 




^ 




ci o c; oc t^ --r; 


te Tf re 




X r^ 


-^ !M 


t^ -r- 


to !M 




1—1 




(M 


to 




" ?. S 
































■sii^ 


5 




^T-'cdcccoc: 


d d d 


d d 


d d 


X X t^ t^ 




■^ 




•O 


-1- 




^■o 


^ 




:c ^ cc cc cc ;r: 


cr: cc o 


cc S tc 


iC »c 


te o tc to 


to to 




to 




to 


>o 






--^ 




0(N "* 1> O CC 


O X C-l o o 






















t, i>. 


^ I— 1 




lo x ^ t^ X cr. 


O C^"! CC 


"^ i-e c<i "^ tc 


tO '^ 


—1 rei>- to 




^ 




o 


X 




c3 S^-S 


o I' 




O X t^ -rt-: re — 


O X O 


"Ti -M o 


X r^ 


to Ci 


--^ (M (M t^ 








•o 


re 




G.^w 




X r^ I-- t^ t^ l^ 


I-, :C CC 


O CC tC 


O lO 


to ^J'* r^ 


(M ^ 




d 




S2 


r^ 




s-5 S 


-iJ o 




w^ W^ wi O^ ^ C^ 


C: 3: O 


wi c^ c^ 


C^ w^ 




CfiO^CiCr. 




X 




X 


X 




o «« « 

u Q 


:r: c^i 






























•j^CC 






C: O O 


O O C: 


3 C 


o o 


d d> 


o o 




^ 




o 


d 




^ 


■-i 




wi "^ o c^ o ^ 


. — , r-~ , — . 


s^ V^. 






















>- (U 


->- 1—1 




X CC- -1^ X C: O 


o o o 


O X -^^ 


-rt -^ 


o ^ 


X t^ 


X C: 




X 




1 — 1 


.^ 




5 <y - 


S II 




X '-* Of >-C tC: cr. 




t^ X ^ 


CCrf 


:r: . C^l -M fM 


re Ci 




1—1 




■^ 


-t- 




=■_> = 




T-H (M M (M C^ C^l 


re re re 


re re ^- -* "* 


^ '-S 


tC t^ X X 




i-H 




re 


1^ 






-k^ o 




o o o o o o 


o o o 


oo ooo 




o o 


o o 




r— 1 




T— f 


r-* 




oi^ 


rS !M 


























• 




U > 


t^^t 






T— 1 1— 1 1— { 


J— i tH 1— 1 


T— t T-< 


I— 1 1—* 


1—1 T-^ 


r— : 




"~ 




'"' 


'"^ 




1 


02 






























i^ .. 


9 ,- 






























Tempe 
atiire 


<y ^- 




O to O lO o »o 


o»o o 


ic o lo o ca (N o 


o o 


O X 




X 




ZC^ 


:^ 








»o lO :0 ;r t^ t^ X X c: 


c: o o 


1—1 I— 1 


1-* CO to t^ O C: 




re 




w 


w- 








^-.^ 


'-' 05 (M (M !N C^l !M (M (M (M fM 




re 




re 


" * 












CO 


























OT 






•| '1 . 


























^ H 






V ±C 


•"^ 










w 




















-7-r ^-' .— 


y 
























3 ~ 






'-' Q 












^ 














|2 






i °i 


c 


V 








o 
o 

o 


















'S 


•- (UN 

rt ^ a; 


c 

^ CO 




tc 


m 




4> TO 


















CJ 




■*->,o 


S 


2 


J2 

'a 




















ly 


g r 


'53 u 






4) 


i 


S o 




















u 


"7^ 


OC; (M to >-0 (M CC 


oS 


■^ C^ iC 


^^ 


to O C-l CO rti (M O X I^ 


'O 


-* 


re ^ei 


1 — ! r— 1 


Weight 

of Icubi 

foot 




s^ !M fM rci -H 


Ci t^ >-e 


t- 'Tf OC' CO t- (M O O 


o 


1— * 


tO 


d f^ 


X c; 


^ 


5 -^ -rf rf •^ Tf 
■M !N 'M (M 'M C^l 


72 72 


rerererere:NC<i'— i^^oocixxt- 


^ 


lO "^^ 

S d 


re oi 

1— 1 T— 


£ 


;c 


O O cc :c cc 




:C :C cc 


CC CC 


CC O :^ 


-O ;0 ^ 


w 


cc 


'"^ 


■~^ 


N*-' S»^ 




,ti 


"7=: 


r^ <— ^- 1-- O 


lo >— 


_ -^ ^-N 


^ !M 


— -M iM 


re cri 


SS 


"d 


1— i 


'^ 


oc" 


O ^ 


CI -+• 




c: 1-^ 


c 




X t^ 


-^ 'M 5: 


X re 


t^ o e-1 "* 'T^ 


r-l C^l t^ 


o 


re X tTQ c^. 


Compa 

ative 

Densit: 


T II 


s 


3t . — , .-^ 2< 3K 

ssiSs 




c: 5; X 


X X 


t: 5^ 3S 

d d d 


to -^ re e-i 

C^ Ci C^ Ci 


s 


^ 


o; OO :^ -^ 5^j >— 1 
X X X X X X 
cr: O O 05 C: C 


- 


- ; 


o:^ 


odo 


oo 


doo 


od 


d d 


o 


/~ 


- 


o 


oo 


o c 




-*— 


"t:::^ 


-^ ^— ^-^ -^ — - 


1'^ c 


X '^- '— ; 


— ^ • — ■ 


^ , — . ~~ 


C: "T 


Ci cr. 


'— - 


Ci 


Ci 


c^ 


O d 


O Ci 


inpar- 

tive 

lume 






c^ X X cj S 


:r 72 

s s 


re i_^ C; 

5 S .z; 

>=: 3S ac 


S d 


re d 1^' 
ei ei re 

S 3=: S 


•o >o 
^ «o 

E d 


re. re 


1 


X 


re 




c: re 
re to 


Cw re 


a > 


:; !N 






























1*- ^ 


1—1 


d d o o ^ 


T— < ^^ 


— : •— 1 — ■ 


^- ^- 


■^" — r-* 


— < — 


^— T— ( 


1— t 


'^ 












30-5 




1—1 

lO O O 'C w 

re CO •«+' rf -^ 


»0 »-0 


'5 9rj 

Le o w 


•e o 

O 1- 


l-I X X 


~ lO 


d w 


1— ( 


•o 


o »o o to o »o 

!M e-i CO CO -^ 't 


















r-< 1—1 


1— 1 


''"' 


^ 


'^ 


.-^ >— i 





Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



251 



relation between the boiling temperature of water and the 
pressure is absolute; pressure cannot be increased without 
also increasing the temperature of the boiling point of the 
water, nor can the temperature of the boiling point of the 
water be increased without increasing the pressure. The 
temperature and pressure of boiling water and the tempera- 

TA15I.E LXV. IJoiling Point of Water 



Abstjlute Pressure in i 
pounds per square 
inch. 


Boiling point of 
water, degrees Kalir- 
enheit. 


Ratio of volume of 
steam to volume of 
equal weight of dis- 
tilled water at temper- 
ature of maximum den- 
sity. 


Ab.solute Pressure in 
pounds per square 
incli. 


Boiling point of 
water, degrees Fahr- 
enheit. 


Ratio of volume of i 
steam to volume of i 
equal weight of dis- 
tilled water at temper- 
ature of maximum den- 
sity. 1 
1 


1 


2 


3 


1 


2 


3 


1 


102.018 


20C23 


46 


275.704 


563.0 


2 


12fi.302 


10730 


48 


278.348 


540.9 


3 


141.654 


7325 


.50 


280. 9(H 


520.5 


4 


153 122 


5588 


52 


283.381 


r)01.7 


5 


162.370 


4530 


54 


285.781 


484 2 


6 


170. 173 


3816 


56 


288.111 


467.9 


7 


176. ()45 


3:^)2 


58 


290.374 


452.7 


S 


182.952 


2912 


60 


292.575 


438.5 


9 


188.357 


2607 


62 


294.717 


425.2 


10 


103. 2S4 


2361 


(H 


296.805 


412.6 


11 


197.814 


2159 


66 


298.842 


400.8 


12 


202.012 


1990 


68 


300.831 


389.8 


i:i 


205.929 


1845 


70 


302.774 


379.3 


14 


205.604 


1721 


72 


304.669 


369 . 4 


U »i«) 


212.000 


164() 


74 


:3(K).526 


3(K).0 


ir> 


213.0<i7 


1614 


76 


308.344 


351 . 1 


i<) 


216.347 


1519 


78 


310.123 


342. () 


17 


219.452 


1434 


80 


311.866 


334.5 


IS 


222 424 


1359 


82 


313.576 


326.8 


10 


225.255 


1292 


84 


315.2r)0 


319.5 


20 


227.964 


1231 


86 


316.893 


312.5 


22 


233. (K;9 


1 126 


88 


318.510 


305. S 


24 


237 803 


1038 


90 


320.094 


299.4 


26 


242 225 


962.3 


92 


321.653 


293.2 


28 


246 376 


897 . 6 


94 


323.183 • 


287.3 


30 


2:)0 293 


S41.3 


96 


324.688 


281.7 


32 


2.-)4.(X)2 


791.8 


9S 


;'.26. 169 


276. :i 


:m 


257.523 


748.0 


100 


:!27.r25 


271 i 


36 


2(i0.833 


708.8 


105 


:<3 1.169 


258.9 


38 


264.093 


673.7 


110 


:'.34.5f»2 


247 . 8 


40 


267.168 


(U2.0 


115 


337.874 


237.6 


42 


270.122 


613.3 


120 


; '.4 1. 058 


228. :5 


44 


272.965 


587.0 









252 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



ture and pressure of the steam in contact with it are always 
equal. 

The relative pressure and temperature of boiling water 
and steam, also the volume of steam at that pressure com- 
pared to the volume of water of which it is composed can be 
found in Table LXV. 

Circulation of Water. — Water is a poor conductor of 
heat. It cannot be heated by conduction or by radiation. 
If heat is applied to the top of a vessel of water, but slight 
rise of temperature will result. Water must be heated by 
circulation or convection, and to cause the water to circulate 
the heat must be applied at the lowest part of the containing 
vessel. d' ^1®^ 

If heat is applied to the bottom of a vessel of water, the 
water immediately begins to circulate. The water directly 
above where the heat is applied is heated by conduction, 

expands in bulk, consequently becomes 
lighter. It is then displaced by the 
cooler and denser water surrounding 
it, which in turn becomes heated and 
is displaced by the surrounding water ; 
thus establishing local circulation of 
the water inside of the vessel. 

If in place of a vessel of water a 

U-shaped tube. Fig. 121, be used and 

the ends of the loop connected at the 

top, as shown in the illustration, the 

water will rise in the leg of the tube 

to which the heat is applied, and will 

descend in the other leg to replace the 

ascending column of water. This 

establishes a continuous movement of 

the entire volume of water in the tubes 

in the direction of the arrows. This 

movement is known as circulation in a 

circuit. That is what occurs when water in a storage tank 

or range boiler is heated from a waterback or water heater. 

The velocity of circulation in a circuit depends upon 

the temperature to which the water is heated and the height 




Fig. 121 
Circulation of Water 



Priix-iplrs (unl f'nicfirr of Ph/nihifif/ 253 

of the circuit. Thus with a hot (ire and a Iii^h loop the 
velocity of (low would be much greater than with the same 
loop and a slow (ire or with a hot fire and a low loop. The 
chief cause retardinjji: circulation is friction, therefore short 
radius bends, contracted waterways, small pipes and un- 
reamed pipe ends should be avoided when installing hot 
water supply systems. 

Mixing Waters of Different Temperatures. — The 
resulting temperature when two or more quantities of water 
of different temperatures are mixed, can be found by divid- 
ing the total number of heat units by the weight of water. 
Instead of reducing the water to pounds weight, however, 
the method can be shortened as shown by the following 
example and solution. 

ExAMPLK — What will he tin- tcini>craturc re.-iillin*; from mixing 30 gallons 
of water at 50 degrees Fahrenheit, with 15 gallons of water at 180 degrees 
temperature? 

Solution — 30 gals, of water at 50° equals 30 X 50 or 1500 
15 gals, of water at 180° equals 15 X 180 or 2700 



45 4200 

4200 divi<lr(l by 45 gives 93 plus, uliicli ^\<lnl<I l»r llic tnnperature (»f the water 
after mixture. 

Three, five, ten or any Jiumber of quantities may be 
mixed the same way, and the resulting temperatures deter- 
mined by dividing the total quantity of heat found by add- 
ing the products of the several volumes times their tem- 
peratures, by the total number of gallons in the mixture. 

RULE II — To find the amount and temperature of 
water required, to result in a mixture of given volume and 
temperature, the cold or hot water volume and temperature 
being knoivn: Multiply the total gallons of the required 
mixture by the required resultant temperature to find the 
total degree-gallon requirement; subtract from that product 
the product of the known number of gallon-'^ and the known 
temperature, which product is the known degree-gallon fac- 
tor. From the total gallons required subtract the total gal- 
lons of the known factor to find the (imount of water neces- 
sari/ to girc the required rotcnic Diridc that renmi,i<t('r 



254 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

into the difference betiveen the total degree-gallon require- 
ment and the known degree-gallon factor. The quotient 
ivill he the temperature at which the required volume must 
he to give the resultant temperature required. 

Example — How much water and at what temperature must be added to 
15 gallons of water at 50° to give 30 gallons of water at 110° ? 

Solution — 30 gals. X 110° (required resultant) = 3,300 degree-gallons. 
15 gals. X 50° ■=: 750 degree-gallons. (The known degree-gallon factor.) 
3,300 — 750 = 2,550 (The required degree-gallon factor.) 30 gals. — 15 gals. 
r=r 15 gals. (Required volume.) 15) 2550 (170° =r AnsAver = 15 gallons of 
water at 170° will, when added to 15 gallons of Avater at 50°, result in 30 
gallons of water at 110°. 

Example — How much Avater and at Avhat temperature must be added to 
20 gallons of water at 140° to result in a volume of 45 gallons at 100°? 

Solution— 45 gals. X 100° = 4,500 degree-gallons. 20 gals. X 140° ir^2,800 
degree-gallons. 4,.500 — 2,800 = 1,700 degree-gallons. 45 gals. — 20 gals. := 25 
gals. 25) 1700 (68° = AnsAver = 25 gallons of Avater at 68° added to 20 gallons 
of Avater at 140° Avill result in a volume of 45 gallons of Avater at 100°. 

Waterbacks. — The hollow casting forming part of the 
fire-box lining of kitchen ranges, and through which water 
circulates and is heated for storage in the range boiler, is 
commonly known as a waterback. In most waterbacks a 
horizontal partition, a, Fig. 122, gives the water a positive 
circulation through the casting and prevents a commingling 
of waters of different temperatures, as is the case where 
waterbacks without this partition are used. It is quite 
important that the opening for the flow pipe, h, be drilled 
close to the top wall of the casting, so that the hottest water 
can flow from the waterback and not cause a rattling sound 
by being retained in the waterback to form steam. 

Water Heating Coils. — In ranges which are not pro- 
vided with waterbacks, heating coils are sometimes made 
to supply the deficiency. Usually they consist of two pieces 
of one-inch black iron pipe joined at one end by a return 
bend. The free ends are then extended through the wall of 
the fire-box, so they can be connected to the boiler. The 
chief objection to the use of water heating coils is the fact 
that their effect on the draft of the stove or on the heating 



Pririciples and Practice of Plumbing 



255 



capacity of the oven can never be pre-determined, conse- 
quentlj^ ovens are often spoiled for baking purposes by plac- 
ing a water coil in a range not designed to accommodate one. 
Capacity of Waterbacks and Coils. — The capacity 
of waterbacks and coils depends upon the materials of which 
they are made, the thickness of metal forming their walls, 
the location of the waterback or coil in the fireplace, their 
freedom from soot, ashes or incrustation of lime or mag- 
nesia, and the intensity of the fire to which they are exposed. 
Under favorable conditions a coil made of copper pipe will 
transmit 300 B. T. U. per hour, a wrought iron or steel pipe, 
200 B. T. U. per hour, a cast iron waterback, 80 B. T. U. 
per hour per square foot, for each degree Fahrenheit dif- 
ference in tem- ^^^ _ _ 



perature between 
the flames or hot 
gases in contact 
with the water- 
back or coil and 
the water inside. 
As a matter of 
fact, however, 
waterbacks and 




Fig. 122 
Waterback 



coils transmit only about 25 per cent, of their possible capac- 
ity. This is due to the fact that they are placed in the fire- 
box in the position least likely to affect the stove for other 
purposes, and therefore are not exposed to the hottest coals 
and gases of the fire. Furthermore, they are partly covered 
by ashes, soot and dying coals, and in the case of cast iron 
waterbacks, the walls usually are of too great thickness to 
transmit the maximum amount of heat. In many cases 
waterbacks and coils are coated with incrustations of lime 
or magnesia that still further reduce their transmitting 
capacities. New or clear cast iron waterbacks, under ordi- 
nary conditions, will heat from ordinary temperature to 200 
degrees Fahrenheit from 25 to 35 gallons of water per hour 
for each square foot of exposed surface. With an ordinary 
fire, one square foot of exposed waterback surface will lieat 
about 25 gallons of water per hour, while with a fire such as 



256 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



is used for baking or roasting, one square foot of surface 
will heat about 35 gallons of water per hour. 

However, the average size of waterback contains only 
110 square inches or about 2/3 square foot of exposed sur- 
face, and water for domestic uses is seldom heated to above 
the temperature of 180 degrees Fahrenheit, therefore an 
ordinary waterback with an average fire will heat from 
ordinary temperature to boiling point about 17 gallons of 
water per hour, or from ordinary temperature to 180 de- 
grees Fahrenheit about 21 gallons of water per hour, while 
with a fire such as is used for cooking or baking it will heat 

23 gallons of water to the boiling 
point, or 27 gallons of water to a 
temperature of 180 degrees Fahren- 
heit. Wrought iron pipes will heat 
from 30 to 40 gallons of water un- 
der the same conditions, and copper 
pipes will heat from 45 to 60 gallons 
per hour for each square foot of sur- 
face exposed to the fire. In calculat- 
ing the heating capacity of a water- 
back or coil, the average tempera- 
ture of the water is taken; thus, if 
A vv^ater at 60 degrees Fahrenheit is 

M, heated to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, 

the average temperature of the 
water would be 60 + 200 -f- 2 = 130 
degrees Fahrenheit, and the range 
of temperature through which it is heated would be 
200 — 60 = 140 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water Heaters. — A magazine feeding water heater, 
such as is used for heating large quantities of water in 
apartment houses, barber shops, bathing establishments, 
etc., is shown in section in Fig. 123. It consists simply of 
a combustion chamber surrounded by an annular space 
through which water circulates and is heated from the 
flames and hot gases within. Heaters of this type are made 
having capacities of from 50 to 600 gallons per hour, and 
larger sectional heaters of different types are made with 




Fig. 123 
Water Heater 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 257 

capacities up to several thousand gallons per hour. The 
heater shown in the illustration has a magazine feed. This 
consists simply of a tube in the center of the heater that 
holds several hours' supply of coal and automatically feeds 
it to the fire. It can be made into a hand-fired heater by 
removing the magazine. A magazine feed heater, however, 
is preferable to a hand feed heater for the reason that it 
will run for 24 hours if necessary without attention. 

Capacity of Water Heaters. — The capacity of a 
water heater depends upon the amount of coal it can effi- 
ciently burn during a given period of time, and the con- 
ductivity and thickness of the walls of the fire-box. Boiler 
iron is a better conductor of heat than cast iron, therefore 
a boiler iron heater of given surface will heat more water 
in an hour than will a cast iron heater of equal surface, the 
amount of coal burned and the intensity of the fire in both 
cases being equal. The amount of coal economically burned 
in a heater depends upon the area of grate and size of the 
smoke flue. Heaters burn from 3 to 6 pounds and will prob- 
ably average 4 pounds of coal per hour per square foot of 
grate surface. The total heat of combustion of a pound of 
coal of average composition is 14.133 B. T. U. Of this 
amount, however, a large percentage passes up the chimney 
as hot gases, so that under ordinary conditions only about 
8000 B. T. U. are actually transmitted to the water. There- 
fore, in calculating the capacity of a heater, the area of 
grate surface, amount of coal efficiently burned and the 
available B. T. U. in a pound of coal are the limiting factors. 
Architects and plumbers should determine for themselves, 
by calculation, the heating capacity of a heater, and not 
rely upon manufacturers' ratings. This is made necessary 
by the lack of uniformity among manufacturers in the rat- 
ing of their heaters, which differ from one another in some 
cases over 100 per cent, for equal area of grates. Some 
part of that percentage might be accounted for by the differ- 
ence of construction, which gives some heaters greater heat- 
ing surface than others, but, making due allowance for the 
improved design of some heaters, they will invariably be 
found overrated, while the run of heaters are overrated 



258 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

from 20 to 50 per cent. The capacity of heaters can be cal- 
culated by means of the rule or formulas following : 

When the quantity of water to be heated per hour is 
known, the size of grate required can be found by the fol- 
lowing rule : 

Rule — Multiply the weight of water in pounds by the 
number of degrees rise in temperature and divide the 
product by the number of pounds of coal burned per hour 
per square foot of grate surface, by the number of heat 
units transmitted to the water from 1 pound of coal. The 
result will be the area in square feet of grate required. 

Expressed as a formula : 
w t - . . 

g^=z . in which "^ = >veight in pounds of water to be heated, t = degrees 

C u ^ 

Fahr. water is to be raised, C =i pounds of coal burned per hour per square 

foot of grate, u = irnits of heat absorbed by water from each pound of 

coal, g = area of grate in feet. 

Example — What size of grate will be required to heat 300 gallons of water 
per hour from 62 to 212 degrees Fahr., 1 gallon weighing 8.3 pounds? 

^ 300 X 8.3 X ' 212-62 > -- ,- , ,. . 

Solution — — = i.i sq. It. grate surlace. — ^Answer. 

6 X 8000 

In the above solution 6 pounds of coal was assumed as 
the consumption per square foot of grate surface because 
the maximum rating of the heater is desired. 

The capacity of a water heater of known dimensions 
can be ascertained by the following rule : 

Rule — Multiply the consumption of coal per square foot 
of grate surface by the number of B. T. U. transmitted to 
the water from each pound of coal, by the number of square 
feet of surface in the grate, and divide the product by the 
tveight of 1 gallon of water times the degrees of temperature 
the water is raised. 

Expressed as a formula : 

go u 
q ^=i , in which g = size of grate in square feet, c = pounds of coal burned 

per hoiu: per square foot of grate surface, u = units of heat absorbed by 
the water from each pound of coal, p =^ 8.3 weight of 1 pound of water, 
t = degrees Fahr. water is raised, q = quantity of water in gallons heated 
per hour. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



259 



ExAMPLt — How many {lallons ol water can ho lieatctl from 62 to 212 
degrees Fahr. in a healer with 7.7 square leri ol grate surface? 

7.7 X 6 X 81W0 



SOLUTIO.N- 



296. \n>wr 



8.3 X •212—62) 

In selecting a water heater, the time the heater must 
run on one charge of fuel must be taken into consideration. 
If a small heater were fired every half-hour with a light 
charge of coal, it would do as many such heaters are rated 
to do, furnish a certain specified 
amount of heat to the Avater. How- 
ever, such a heater would be a nuis- 
ance, and would supply only part of 
the rated heat if fired only at long 
intervals, as heaters are 
supposed to be fired. A C^^^ 
heater ought to hold enough 
coal to burn freely at the greatest 
rate of combustion it will have to in 
use, for at least four hours time. As- 
suming a combustion of six pounds 
of coal per hour for each square 
foot of grate surface, and a period 
of four hours the heater must run 
on one charge of fuel, then 
a space sufficient to hold 
4 X 6 = 24 pounds of fuel 
would have to be provided in the 
combustion chamber for each square 
foot of grate surface. Anthracite 
coal weighs 95 pounds per cubic 
foot, so that a heater ought to have 
a storage capacity of one-quarter 
cubic foot for each square foot of grate surface. In addi- 
tion to this storage capacity for coal the combustion cham- 
ber must have ample space for the burning of gases distilled 
from the coal, or the gases will escape without being burned, 
and the heating capacity will be greatly reduced. Tiie 
gases cannot burn unless mixed with a large quantity of 
air, so it would be safe to say that at least one-half cubic 




Water ll«>ater 



260 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



foot of space should be allowed in the fire box, in addition 
to the space occupied by the coal, for each square foot of 
grate surface. 

Garbage Burning Water Heaters. — Garbage burn- 
ing water heaters are sometimes used in large institutions 
where they serve the double purpose of destroying refuse 
and heating water for domestic supply. A type of such 
water heater is shown in Fig. 124. Its distinguishing 
features are two grates, one an ordinary grate to burn coal 
or other fuel on, and the other a pipe coil through which 
water circulates and on which the garbage to be burned is 
placed. \Miere large quantities of combustible materials 
must be disposed of, such heaters are both efficient and 
economical. 

Smoke Flues. — It is important that a good chimney 
flue, straight and smooth inside and proportioned to the 
area of the grate, be 
provided for each 
water heater. No 
other smoke pipe 
should be permitted 
to connect with this 
flue, nor should 
other openings to it 
be permitted, as 
they would spoil the 
chimney draft. 

Smoke flues 
should be cased with 
flue linings to give them a smooth interior surface. The 
best form for flue linings is round or oval, as smoke and hot 
gases pass up with less frictional resistance in a round flue 
than in a square one. Square flues are much more efficient 
than rectangular ones, on account of the less surface ex- 
posed for a given area of flue; for instance, a flue 12x12 
inches has an area of 144 square inches and a perimeter of 
only 48 inches, while a flue 8x18 inches having an equal 
area, has a perimeter of 52 inches, thus presenting four 
additional inches to offer i'esistance, No satisfactory 




Fig. 125 
Automatic AVaterback Cleaner 



Principle'^ and Practice of Plumhmg 



261 



formula was ever devised to calculate the area of smoke 
flues under varying conditions. A simple empirical rule 
that will be found satisfactory for determining the area of 
flues for water heaters follows : 

Rule — Allow for smoke flue one-eighth the sectional 
area of heater grate. 

Example — What size of smoke flue will be required for a water heater 
rontaining 4 square feet of grate? 



Solution — 4 square feet = 576 square inches. % of 576-=: 72 square 
inches =:: area of smoke flue. The nearest sizes of commercial flue linings are: 
Square, 9>V'2 X 8K' inches = 72.25 square inches round, 10^ times .7584 = 78.54 
square inches. 

Incrustation of Water Heaters. — An apparatus for 
automatically feeding soda ash or other precipitating chem- 
icals to hard water is shown in ¥v<^. 
125. This apparatus is used in connec- 
tion with waterbacks and water heat- 
ers to prevent them becoming choked 
by deposits of lime. When properly 
looked after an apparatus of this kind 
will precipitate so large a quantity of 
the lime or magnesia held in solution 
by the waters, that the periods be- 
tween cleanings of waterbacks or 
heaters will be lengthened from 50 to 
100 per cent. 

The precipitating reagents are 
placed in this vessel, wetted, and the 
two valves opened sufliiciently to give a 
flow through the apparatus propor- 
tioned to the amount of water flowing 
through the pipe. The apparatus then 
works automatically until the chemical 
reagent is exhausted. To secure satis- 
factory results the apparatus must be 
placed on the return pipe to the waterback, as shown. All 
water is thus treated before reaching the waterback or 
heater. 




Fig. 12G 

Vertical Tank with 

Steam Coil 



262 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 





"5"^ — 

Fig. 127 
Steam Coil in Horiontal Tank 



Steam Coils. — Water in tanks is sometimes heated by 
a steam coil immersed in the water. This method of heat- 
ing has the advantage of requiring no care whatever, and 
saves the labor, expense and dirt of an extra fire. When 
exhaust steam is available the cost of heating water by this 

method is prac- 
tically nothing. 

A steam coil 
can be placed in 
either a vertical 
or in a horizontal 
tank, the only re- 
quirements being 
that the pipe used 
in the coil be large enough to take care of the water of con- 
densation, and that it have a slight fall from the top con- 
nection where the steam enters to the bottom outlet towards 
which the water of condensation drains. 

In a vertical tank, Fig. 126, the steam coil is spiral and 
placed near the bottom. This type of coil is used princi- 
pally in connection with kitchen ranges. Large size hot 
water tanks are usually placed in a horizontal position. 
Fig. 127 shows a method of placing a coil for high pressure 
steam inside of a 
hot-water tank. 
In this coil, steam 
or the condensa- 
tion, travels 
through the en- 
tire length of 
coil. When ex- 
haust steam is 
used, however, a 
shorter course 

should be provided to minimize the back pressure on the 
engines. A heating coil for exhaust steam is shown in 
Fig. 128. This type of heater is better than a continuous 
coil, either for exhaust steam or for live steam. 

Steam coils for tanks may be made of copper, brass 




^J)r/p P/pe. 



Fig. 128 
Exhaust Steam Coil in Tank 



Priuciplcs and Practice of Plumbing 263 

or iron pipe. Copper and brass pipes last longer than iron 
and transmit more heat to the water per square foot of 
heating surface. For these reasons, either copper or brass 
coils are preferable to iron pipe coils. The size of steam 
coil in square feet required to heat a certain quantity of 
water in a given time, can be found by the following rule: 

Rule — Multiply the weight of water in pounds by the 
number of degrees temperature Fahrenheit the water is to 
be raised, and divide the product by the coefficient of trans- 
mission times the difference between the temperature of the 
steam and the average temperature of the water. 

Expressed as a formula: 

s = .ill wliicli s =r surface of copper or iron pipe in square feet, 

c(T— ti 

w = weight in pouiuls of water to be heated, r = rise in temperature of 
water, t = average temperature of the water in contact with coils, T =: 
temperature of steam, c =: coefficient of transmission. 

The value of c for copper is 300 B. T. U. and for iron 
200 B. T. U. transmitted per hour per square foot of sur- 
face for each degree difference between the temperature of 
the steam and the average temperature of water. 

In computing the heating surface of copper or iron pipe 
in steam coils, the inner circumference of the pipe must be 
taken, as that is the real heating surface to which heat is 
applied. The average temperature of the water in contact 
with the coil is taken as the temperature of the water. 

Example — How many square feet of heating surface will he re(juired in 
a copper coil to heat 300 gallons of water per hour from 50 degrees to 200 
degrees Fahr. with steam IS pounds pressure? 

Solution— 300 X 8-3 = 2490 pounds of water to he heated. 200' — 50' 
= 150° =: rise in temperature of water. 150^ -f- 2 -|- 50° = 125° = average 
temperature of water. 250' = temperature of steam at 15 pounds gauge j'ress- 
ure (Table LXlXl. 2.50" — 125^ =: difference between temperature of steam 
and average lemi»rrature of w.ilcr. Snli-tilntin^ these valiH-s in ibr birmnl.i: 

s= ■ ;!:: v.v sciuarc Icel ol coll. Answer. 

300 X (250—125) 

Some convenient constants for steam coils that produce 
ai)proximations sufliciently accurate for most purposes fol- 
low. The values will be found safe: 



264 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

W = gallons water to heat per hour. 

W -i- 10 = square feet iron pipe coil required for exhaust steam. 

W -i- 15 :^ square feet copper coil required for exhaust steam. 

W X -07 =: square feet iron pipe coil for 5 pounds pressure steam. 

W X -045 ^ square feet copper pipe coil for 5 pounds pressure steam. 

W X -05 =: square feet iron pipe coil for 25 pounds steam pressure. 

W X -035 =: square feet copper pipe coil for 25 pounds steam pressure. 

W X -04 =z square feet iron pipe coil for 50 pounds steam pressure. 

W X -025 = square feet copper pipe coil for 50 pounds steam pressure. 

W X -03 =: square feet iron pipe coil for 75 pounds steam pressure. 

W X -02 ^ square feet copper pipe coil for 75 pounds steam pressure. 

W -^ 30 =r horse-power of boiler to supply steam. 

W -=- 7 = pounds of coal per hour to heat water. 

W -f- 200 r= tank heater grate area (not less 12 inches diam.). 

W -f- 30 1= square feet heating surface in tank heater. 

Condensation from steam heating coil = 1 pound of steam per gallon of 
water heated per hour =: 1000 heat units. 

Increased weight or pounds of steam blown into water z= units of heat 
-^ 1000. 

Increase in gallons = units of heat X 0.00012. 

The above data apply to closed tanks. For open kettles 
there is a large loss of heat by evaporation from the surface 
of the water. With a closed tank there is a loss of about 
200 units per hour per square foot of exposed surface. 

Taking the foregoing example for comparison, the near- 
est value to 15 pounds steam is 25 pounds, and the coefficient 
for copper pipe at this temperature is .035. Hence, 
300 + .035 = 10.5 square feet. Answer. 

Example — What size steam coil is required to heat 300 gallons per hour 
in a closed boiler with exhaust steam? 300 -|- 10 =: 30 square feet in coil. 
With steam at 25 pounds pressure? 300-X 0.07 r= 21 square feet. 

How many pounds of steam will be required? 300 pounds (1 pound per 
gallon). 

What horse-power steam boiler will be required? 300^30=10 horse- 
power. 

How many pounds of coal per hour? 300^7^43 pounds. 
What size tank heater is required (grate area in square feet) ? 300 ~ 200 
= 1^ square feet = about 17 inches diameter. 

Actual Performance of Steam Water Heaters. — In 
the Union Central Office Building, Cincinnati, Ohio, are 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 265 

three Goubert heaters for heating the water throughout the 
building. Hot water being used only at lavatories and slop 
sinks. Water enters the heater at a temperature of 72 
degrees Fahrenheit, and the average temperature of the 
water delivered throughout the 30 stories of the building is 
138 degrees F. There are in the building approximately 
275 lavatories and slop sinks or fixtures supplying hot water 
to the tenants. 

During the eight hours of the test it was estimated that 
2494 pounds of steam were used in heating water for the 
building, or an average of 311.8 pounds per hour. The cost 
of producing hot water for eight hours was $0.2961, making 
the cost per hour $0,037. The cost of heating water per 
fixture per day averaged about $0.00108. 

Heating Water by Steam in Contact. — The quick- 
est and most economical way to heat water with steam is to 
bring the steam into direct contact with the water. This 
method is used extensively to heat water in swimming pools, 
vats for industrial purposes, dish washing, etc., and is 
usually accomplished by forcing steam through a perforated 
pipe or steam nozzle located near the bottom of the tank and 
submerged by the water. When perforated pipes are used 
for this purpose they should be of brass or copper to pre- 
vent corrosion, and the combined area of the perforations 
should be at least eight times the area of pipe to equal it in 
capacity. Exhaust steam from pumps, engines or other 
apparatus, that is liable to contain oil or grease, is not suit- 
able for this purpose. 

When steam is brought in contact with water in an 
open vessel steam bubbles are formed, rise toward the sur- 
face and collapse with a report. For this reason water is 
heated by steam in direct contact through perforated pipes 
only when noise is not objectionable. 

Noiseless Water Heaters. — A steam nozzle for noise- 
lessly heating water by steam in direct contact is shown in 
Fig. 129. This apparatus consists of an outward and 
upward discharging steam nozzle covered by a shield which 
has numerous openings for the admission of water, so that 



266 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



the jet takes the form of an inverted cone, discharging 
upwards. 

Air, admitted through a small pipe, is drawn in by the 
jet, and by mixing with the steam prevents the sudden col- 
lapse of bubbles and the consequent noise which is such a 
great objection to heating by direct steam in the old way. 

A valve or cock 
on this air pipe 
regulates the 
air to the 
quantity most 
desirable. 

If water 

_ ^ _^ is to be heated 

M=ll^^M^^^^^^?^^^E^^ZH£:H to a less tem- 
perature than 
165 degrees 
Fa h r e n h e i t, 
which would be 
the case in 
most installa- 
tions, the air pipe is not used, as the heater will operate 
noiselessly without it. If, however, the temperature of the 
water is to be raised above 165 degrees Fahrenheit an air 
pipe must be used. A pressure of air is not required in the 
air pipe when the pressure of steam is sufficient to draw 
air in by inspiration. The pressure of steam required for 
this purpose is proportioned to the depth of water above the 
heater in the tank, and cannot be less than those given in 
Table LXVL 




Fig. 129 
Stoam Water Heater 



TABLE LXVL Pressures of Steam for Heads of Water 



Head of water in feet above heater, 
Minimum steam pressm-e, poimds. . 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


4 


8 


12 


18 


24 


32 


40 


50 



If water is to be heated to a greater temperature than 
165 degrees Fahrenheit with less steam pressure than is 
called for in the foregoing table, air must be supplied under 
pressure, and both the air pressure and the steam pressure 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



267 



must equal in pounds the height in feet of water above the 
heater. 

Stock sizes of this type of heater, with the manufac- 
turers' ratings in B. T. U. per minute under different steam 
pressures, can be found in Table LXVII. 



TABLE LXVII. Capacity of Noiseless Water Heaters 



Diameter 


Diameter 


Capacity in Heat Units (B. T. U.) per Minute 


of 


of 




Steam Pressure 


Steam Pipe 


Air Pipe 
in 








in 












Inches 


Inches 


10 Pounds 


20 Pounds 


40 Pounds 


60 Pounds 


80 Pounds 


^ 


K 


810 


1,040 


1,820 


2,485 


2,920 


Vi 


^ 


2,540 


3,270 


5,720 


7,620 


9,150 


^ 


^ 


4,375 


5,625 


9,845 


13,125 


15,750 


1 


^ 


7,000 


9,000 


15,750 


21,000 


25,200 


IH 


¥2 


17,500 


22,500 


39,300 


52,500 


73,000 


2 


% 


26,700 


34,300 


60,100 


80,000 


96,000 


2J^ 


% 


39,000 


50,500 


88,500 


108,000 


141,500 


3 


1 


61,200 


78.750 


137,5CO 


183,700 


215,500 


4 


1^ 


103,250 


132,750 


231,200 


309,750 


371,700 


6 


2 • 


245,000 


315,000 


550,000 


735,000 


862,000 



To find the size of heater required to heat a certain 
quantity of water in a given time, first find the number of 
B. T. U. required per minute and the pressure of steam and 
the size will be found in Table LXVIL 

Example— 100 cubic feet of water shall be heated from 60 to 180 degrees, 
or 120 degrees increase, in 30 minutes, with steam of 80 lbs. pressure. 

Weight of 1 cubic foot of water, 62.5 pounds. 
62.5 X 100 X 120 750,000 



30 



30 



25,000 heat units per minute. 



Comparing this with table indicates the 1-inch steam 
pipe is the size required. 

Another Example— 200 gallons of water sliall l)e heated from 30 degrees 
to 90, or 60 degrees increase, in six minutes by steam of 10 pounds pressure. 
Weight of 1 gallon, 8.3 pounds. 



8.3X200X60_ 99,600 



16,600 heat units per minute. 



Comparing this with the table indicates that lV2-inch 
steam pipe is the size required. 



268 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



COMMINGLER. — An apparatus for noiselessly heating 
water by direct contact in a closed circuit is shown in Fig. 
130. This apparatus is known as a coyniningler, and takes 
the place of, and is connected to, a storage tank in the same 
manner as a waterback or heater. Water from the hot 
water tank enters the commingler through the pipe a, passes 
up through the body of the casting and flows back through 
the pipe h into the tank. Steam is supplied to the heater 
through the pipe c, passes down pipe d, and escapes into the 
body of the commingler through the small holes, e, shown 
in the nozzle. 

The admission of steam to the body of the \vater in 

this manner prevents the 
noise which is experienced 
when steam enters a body of 
cold water directly and with- 
out being previously broken 
up, as is done by these holes. 
Sometimes a portion of the 
interior of the casting is filled 
with small pebbles surround- 
ing the nozzle, the effect being 
to still further break up the 
steam, which has to force its 
way through these pebbles be- 
fore striking the main body 
of water in the casting. 

To use this apparatus in 
a closed circuit the steam 
pressure must be greater than 
the water pressure, and a 
check-valve should be placed in the steam pipe to prevent 
water flowing from the commingler to the steam boiler 
when the steam pressure is low. 

Heat Transmitted by Steam to Water. — When 
steam is brought in contact with water of lower temperature 
than the steam, it almost instantly parts with all of its 
latent heat and all of its sensible heat above the temperature 
of the water. Thug, when ^ pound of steam i§ brought in 




Fig. 130 
Steam and Water Commingler 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



269 



contact with water it imparts as many B. T. U. to the water 
as there are B. T. U. in a pound of steam at that pressure 
above the temperature of the water. For instance, there 

TABLE LXVIII. B. T. U. in Water at DiflPerent Tempera- 
tures 



Temperature, 
Degrees Fahr. 


Number of 
B. T, U. reckoning 
from 0° 


Number of 
B. T. U. Required to 
raise the Tempera- 
ture of the Water 
to Boiling Point 
212° Fahr. 


35 

40 

45 


35.000 
40.001 
45.002 
50.003 
55.006 
60.009 
65.014 
70.020 

75.027 
80.036 
85.045 
90.055 
95.067 
100.080 
105.095 

110.110 
115.129 
120.149 
125.169 
130.192 
135.217 
140.245 

145.275 
150.305 
155.339 
160.374 
165.413 
170.453 
175.497 

180.542 
185.591 
190.643 
195.697 
200.753 
205.813 
210.874 


177.900 
172.899 
167.898 


50 


162.897 


55 


157.894 


60 


152.891 


65 


147.886 


70 


142.880 


75 


137.873 


80 


132.864 


'85 


127.855 


90 

95 

100 


122.845 
117.833 
112.820 


105 


107.815 


110 


102.790 


115 


97.771 


120 


92.751 


125 

130 

135 


87.731 

82.708 
77.683 


140 


72.655 


145 


67.625 


150 


62.585 


155 


57.561 


160 


52.526 


165 


47.487 


170 


42.447 


175 


37.403 


180 


32.358 


185 


27.309 


190 


22.257 


195 


17.203 


200 


12.147 


205 


7.087 


210 


2.016 







270 Principles arid Practice of Plumbiyig 

are 1141.1 B. T. U. in one pound of steam at atmospheric 
pressure reckoning from the freezing point, and if allowed 
to expand in water with a temperature of 60 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the steam will part with all of its heat until the 
temperature of the water of condensation is equal to the 
temperature of the water to be heated. In doing so it will 
impart 1141.1 + 32 — 60 = 1113.1 B. T. U. to the water, 
and will increase its bulk by one pound, or about V^ gallon. 
The number of B. T. U. in a pound of steam varies with its 
temperature and pressure. 

The number of B. T. U. contained in one pound of 
water at different temperatures, also the number of B. T. U. 
required to raise one pound of water from different temper- 
atures to boiling point at atmospheric pressure, may be 
found in Table LXVIII. 

Steam Required to Heat Water. — The weight of 
steam required to heat a given quantity of water from a cer- 
tain temperature to boiling point can be found by the fol- 
lowing rule : 

Rule — Multiply the number of pounds of water to be 
heated by the numher of degrees temperature the icater is 
to be raised, and divide the product by the total heat of 
steam at the pressure it is to be used, less the sensible heat 
at atmospheric pressure. 

This may be expressed by the formula : 

^ — ^ j- in ^vhich s = Aveight ot steam in pounds, w = pounds of water to 

be heated, h := degrees Fahr. water to be heated; L ^ total heat of steam 
at pressure used, 1 = sensible heat at atmospheric pressure. 

Example — How many pounds of steam at 70 pounds pressure will be 
required to heat 7,500 pounds of water from 48 degrees Fahr. to boiling point? 

c 7500 (212—48) ..^o- a t . a 

Solution — =: lid. pounds ot steam. Answer. 

(1174—180) 

An empirical rule that is sufficiently approximate for 
most purposes is to allow 1 pound of steam for 6 pounds of 
water to be heated. Taking the above example then : 

7500 ^ 6 = 1250 pounds of steam. Answer. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 271 

TABLE LXIX. Properties of Saturated Steam. 



Absolute 


Tempera- 
ture 
Degrees 
Fahr. 


Heat Units above 32 Degrees 

Fahr. 

Contained in 1 Pound of Steam 


Weight 

of 

1 Cubic 

Foot 

in 
Pounds 


Volume 

of 
1 Pound 


Pressure 


In Water 


Latent 
Heat 


Total 
Heat 


in 
Cubic 
Feet ' 


• 14.7 


212.0 


180.9 


965.7 


1146.6 


.0379 


26.37 


15 


213.1 


181.6 


965.3 


1146.9 


.0387 


25.85 


16 


216.3 


184.9 


963.0 


1147.9 


.0411 


24.33 


17 


219.5 


188.1 


960.8 


1148.9 


.0435 


22.98 


18 


222.4 


191.1 


958.7 


1149.8 


.0459 


21.78 


19 


225.3 


193.9 


956.7 


1150.6 


.0483 


20.70 


20 


228.0 


196.7 


954.8 


1151.5 


.0507 


19.73 


21 


230.6 


199.3 


953.0 


1152.3 


.0531 


18.84 


22 


233.1 


201.8 


951.2 


1153.0 


.0554 


18.04 


23 


235.5 


204.3 


949.5 


1153.8 


.0578 


17.30 


24 


237.8 


206.6 


947.9 


1154.5 


.0602 


16.62 


25 


240.1 


208.9 


946.3 


1155.2 


.0625 


16.00 


26 


242.2 


211.1 


944.7 


1155.8 


.0649 


15.42 


27 


244.3 


213.2 


943.3 


1156.5 


.0672 


14.88 


28 


246.4 


215.3 


941.8 


1157.1 


.0695 


14.38 


29 


248.4 


217.3 


940.4 


1157.7 


.0719 


13.91 


30 


250.3 


219.3 


939.0 


1158.3 


.0742 


13.48 


31 


252.2 


221.2 


937.7 


1158.9 


.0765 


13.07 


32 


254.0 


223.0 


936.4 


1159.4 


.0788 


12.68 


33 


255.8 


224.8 


935.1 


1159.9 


.0812 


12.32 


34 


257.5 


226.6 


933.9 


1160.5 


.0835 


11.98 


35 


259.2 


228.3 


932.7 


1161.0 


.0858 


11.66 


36 


260.9 


230.0 


931.5 


1161.5 


.0881 


11.36 


37 


262.5 


231.6 


930.4 


1162.0 


.0904 


11.07 


38 


264.1 


233.3 


929.2 


1162.5 


.0927 


10.79 


39 


265.6 


234.8 


928.1 


1162.9 


.0949 


10.53 


40 


267.2 


236.4 


927.0 


1163.4 


.0972 


10.28 


41 


268.7 


237.9 


926.0 


1163.9 


.0995 


10.05 


42 


270.1 


239.4 


924.9 


1164.3 


.1018 


9.83 


43 


271.6 


240.8 


923.9 


1164.7 


.1041 


9.61 


44 


273.0 


242.3 


922.9 


1165.2 


. 1063 


9.40 


45 


274.3 


243.7 


921 . 9 


1165.6 


.1086 


9.21 


46 


275.7 


245.1 


920.9 


1166.0 


.1109 


9.02 


47 


277.0 


246.4 


920.0 


1166.4 


.1131 


8.84 


48 


278.3 


247.7 


919.1 


1166.8 


.1154 


8.67 


49 


279.6 


249.1 


918.1 


1167.2 


.1177 


8.50 


50 


280.9 


250.3 


917.3 


1167.6 


.1199 


8.34 


51 


282.2 


251.6 


916.4 


1168.0 


.1222 


8.19 


52 


283.4 


252.9 


915.5 


1168.4 


.1244 


8.04 


53 


284.6 


254.1 


914.6 


1168.7 


.1267 


7.89 


54 


285.8 


255.3 


913.8 


1169.1 


. 1289 


7.76 


55 


287.0 


256.5 


912.9 


1169.4 


. 1312 


7.62 


56 


288.1 


257.7 


912.1 


1169.8 


.1334 


7.50 


57 


289.3 


258.9 


911.3 


1170.2 


. 1357 


7.37 


58 


290.4 


260.0 


910.5 


1170.5 


.1379 


7.25 


59 


291.5 


261.1 


909.7 


1170. S 


.1401 


7.14 


60 


292.6 


262.3 


908.9 


1171.2 


.1424 


7.02 



272 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

TABLE LXIX— Continued 







Heat Units above 32 Deerees 












Fahr. 




Weight 


\'olume 




Tempera- 


Containec 


. in 1 Pound of Steam 


of 


of 


Absolute 


ture 
Degrees 








1 Cubic 
Foot 


1 Pound 


Pressure 








in 




Fahr. 


In Water 


Latent 


Total 


in 


Cubic 


* 




Heat 


Heat 


Pounds 


Feet 


61 


293.7 


263.3 


908.2 


1171.5 


.1446 


6.92 


62 


294.7 


264.4 


907.4 


1171. S 


.1468 


6.81 


63 


295.8 


265.5 


906.6 


1172.1 


.1491 


6.71 


64 


296.8 


266.6 


905.9 


1172.5 


. 1513 


6.61 


65 


297.8 


267.6 


905.2 


1172.8 


. 1535 


6.52 


66 


298.8 


268.7 


904.4 


1173.1 


. 1557 


6.42 


67 


299.8 


269.7 


903.7 


1173.4 


. 1579 


6.33 


68 


300.8 


270.7 


903.0 


1173.7 


.1602 


6.24 


69 


301.8 


271.7 


902.3 


1174.0 


.1624 


6.16 


70 


302.8 


272.7 


901.6 


1174.3 


.1646 


6.08 


71 


303.7 


273.6 


901.0 


1174.6 


.1668 


6.00 


72 


304.7 


274.6 


900.3 


1174.9 


.1690 


5.92 


73 


305.6 


275.6 


899.6 


1175.2 


.1712 


5.84 


74 


306. 


276.5 


898.9 


1175.4 


, 1784 


5.77 


75 


307.4 


277.4 


898.3 


1175.7 


. 1756 


5.69 


76 


308.3 


278.4 


897.6 


1176.0 


.1778 


5.62 


77 


309.2 


279.3 


897.0 


1176.3 


.1800 


5.56 


78 


310.1 


280.2 


896.3 


1176.5 


. 1822 


5.49 


79 


311.0 


281.1 


895.7 


1176.8 


.1844 


5.42 


80 


311.9 


282.0 


895.1 


1177.1 


.1866 


5.36 


81 


312.7 


282.8 


894.5 


1177.3 


.1888 


5.30 


82 


313.6 


283.7 


893.9 


1177.6 


.1910 


5.24 


83 


314.4 


284.5 


893.3 


1177.8 


. 1932 


5.18 


84 


315.3 


285.4 


892.7 


1178.1 


. 1954 


5 12 


85 


316.1 


286.2 


892.1 


1178.3 


.1976 


5.06 


86 


316.9 


287.1 


891.5 


1178.6 


.1998 


5.01 


87 


317.7 


287.9 


890.9 


1178.8 


.2020 


4.95 


88 


318.5 


288.8 


890.3 


1179.1 


.2042 


4.90 


89 


319.3 


289.6 


889.7 


1179.3 


.2063 


4.85 


90 


320.1 


290.4 


889.2 


1179.6 


.2085 


4.<S0 


91 


320.9 


291.2 


888.6 


1179.8 


.2107 


4.75 


92 


321.7 


291.9 


888.1 


IISO.O 


.2129 


4.70 


93 


322.4 


292.8 


887.5 


1180.3 


.2151 


4.65 


94 


323.2 


293.5 


887.0 


1180.5 


.2173 


4.60 


95 


323.9 


294.3 


886.4 


1180.7 


.2194 


4.56 


96 


324.7 


295.1 


88.5.9 


llSl.O 


.2216 


4.51 


97 


325.4 


295.8 


885.4 


1181.2 


.2238 


4.47 


98 


326.2 


296.6 


884.8 


1181.4 


.2260 


4.43 


99 


326.9 


297.3 


884.3 


1181.6 


.2281 


4.38 


100 


327.6 


298.1 


883.8 


1181.9 


.2303 


4.34 


101 


328.3 


298.8 


883.3 


1182.1 


.2325 


4.30 


102 


329.1 


299.6 


882.7 


1182.3 


.2346 


4.26 


103 


329.8 


300.3 


882.2 


1182.5 


.2368 


4.22 


104 


330.5 


301.0 


881.7 


1182.7 


.2390 


4.19 


105 


331.2 


301.7 


881.2 


1182.9 


.2411 


4.15 


106 


331.9 


302.4 


880.7 


1183.1 


.2433 


4.11 


107 


332.6 


303.2 


880.2 


1183.4 


.2455 - 


4.07 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 
TABLE LXIX— Continued 



273 







Heat Units above 32 Degrees 
Fahr. 


Weight 


Volume 




Tempera- 


Contained in 1 Pound of Steam 


of 


of 


Absolute 


ture 
Degrees 








1 Cubic 
Foot 


1 Pound 


Pressure 








in 




Fahr. 


In Water 


Latent 


Total 


in 


Cubic 






Heat 


Heat 


Pounds 


Feet 


108 


333.2 


303.9 


879.7 


1183.6 


.2476 


4.04 


109 


333.9 


304.6 


879.2 


1183.8 


.2498 


4.00 


110 


334.6 


305.3 


878.7 


1184.0 


.2519 


3.97 


111 


335.3 


305.9 


878.3 


1184.2 


.2541 


3.94 


112 


335.9 


306.6 


877.8 


1184.4 


.2563 


3.90 


113 


336.6 


307.3 


877.3 


1184.6 


.2584 


3.87 


114 


337.2 


308.0 


876.8 


1184.8 


.2606 


3.84 


115 


337.9 


308.6 


876.4 


1185.0 


.2627 


3.81 


116 


338.5 


309.3 


875.9 


1185.2 


.2649 


3.78 


117 


339.2 


310.0 


875.4 


1185.4 


.2670 


3.75 


118 


339.8 


310.6 


875.0 


1185.6 


.2692 


3.72 


119 


340.4 


311.3 


874.5 


1185.8 


.2713 


3.69 


120 


341.1 


311.9 


874.1 


1186.0 


.2735 


3.66 


121 


341.7 


312.5 


873.6 


1186.1 


.2757 


3.63 


122 


342.3 


313.1 


873.2 


1186.3 


.2778 


3.60 


123 


342.9 


313.8 


872.7 


1186.5 


.2799 


3.57 


124 


343.5 


314.4 


872.3 


1186.7 


.2821 


3.55 


125 


344.1 


315.1 


871.8 


1186.9 


.2842 


3.52 


126 


344.7 


315.7 


871.4 


1187.1 


.2864 


3.49 


127 


345.3 


316.3 


871.0 


1187.3 


.2885 


3.47 


128 


345.9 


316.9 


870.5 


1187.4 


.2907 


3.44 


129 


346.5 


317.5 


870.1 


1187.6 


.2Q28 


3.42 


130 


347.1 


318.1 


869.7 


1187.8 


.2950 


3.39 


131 


347.7 


318.7 


869.3 


1188.0 


.2971 


3.37 


132 


348.3 


319.3 


868.9 


1188.2 


.2992 


3.34 


133 


348.9 


319.9 


868.4 


1188.3 


.3014 


3.32 


134 


349.4 


320.5 


868.0 


1188.5 


.3035 


3.30 


135 


350.0 


321.1 


867.6 


1188.7 


.3057 


3.27 


136 


350.6 


321.7 


867.2 


1188.9 


.3078 


3.25 


137 


351 . 1 


322.3 


866.8 


1189.1 


.3099 


3.23 


138 


351.7 


322.8 


866.4 


1189.2 


.3121 


3.20 


139 


352.3 


323.4 


866.0 


1189.4 


.3142 


3.18 


140 


352.8 


324.0 


865.6 


1189.6 


.3163 


3.16 


141 


353.4 


324.6 


865.1 


1189.7 


.3185 


3.14 


142 


353.9 


325.1 


864.8 


1189.9 


.3206 


3.12 


143 


354.5 


325.7 


864.4 


1190.1 


.3227 


3.10 


144 


355.0 


326.2 


864.0 


1190.2 


.3249 


3.08 


145 


355.6 


326,8 


863.6 


1190.4 


.3270 


3.06 


146 


356.1 


327.4 


863.2 


1190.6 


.3291 


3.04 


147 


356.6 


327.9 


862.8 


1190.7 


.3313 


3.02 


148 


357.2 


328.5 


862.4 


1190.9 


.3334 


3.00 


149 


357.7 


329 


862.0 


1191.0 


.3355 


2.98 


150 


358.2 


329.6 


861.6 


1191.2 


.3376 


2.96 


160 


363.3 


334.9 


857.9 


1192.8 


.3589 


2.79 


170 


368.2 


339.9 


854.4 


1194.3 


.3801 


2.63 


180 


372.9 


344.7 


851.0 


1195.7 


.4012 


2.49 


190 


377.4 


349.3 


847.7 


1197.0 


.4223 


2.37 


200 


381.6 


353.7 


844.6 


1198.3 


.4433 


2.26 



274 



Principles and Practice of Plmnhing 



TABLE LXX. Properties of Saturated Steam of from 32 

Degrees to 212 Degrees Fahr. at Pressures Under 

One Atmosphere 









Total Heat of 








Press 


ure 


One Pound 


Weight 


Volume of 


Tempera- 






Reckoned 


of 


One 


ture 






from Water at 


100 Cubic 


Pound of 


Degrees 


1 




il Degrees 


Feet 


Vapor 


Fahr. 


Inches of 


Pounds per 


Fahr. 


Pounds 


Cubic Feet 




Mercun,- 


Square Inch 


Units 






32 


.181 


.089 


1091.2 


.031 


3226 


35 


.204 


.100 


1092.1 


.034 


2941 


40 


.248 


.122 


1093.6 


.041 


2439 


45 ! 


.299 


.147 


1095.1 


.049 


2041 


50 


.362 


.178 


1096.6 


.059 


1695 


55 


.426 


.214 


1098.2 


.070 


1429 


60 


.517 


.254 


1099.7 


.082 


1220 


65 


.619 ■ 


.304 


1101.2 


.097 


1031 


70 


. 733 


.360 


1102.8 


.114 


877.2 


75 


.869 


.427 


1104.3 


.134 


746.3 


80 


1.024 


.503 


1105.8 


.156 


641.0 


85 


1.205 


.592 


1107.3 


.182 


549.5 


90 


1.410 


.693 


1108.9 


212 


471.7 


95 


1.647 


.809 


1110.4 


.245 


408.2 


100 


1.917 


.942 


1111.9 


.283 


353.4 


105 


2.229 


1 . 095 


1113.4 


325 


307.7 


110 


2.579 


1 . 267 


1115.0 


.373 


268.1 


115 


2.976 


1 . 462 


1116.5 


.426 


234.7 


120 


3.430 


1 . 685 


1118.0 


.488 


204.9 


125 


3.933 


1 . 932 


1119.5 


.554 


180.5 


130 


4.509 


2.215 


1121.1 


.630 


158.7 


135 


5.174 


2.542 


1122.6 


.714 


140.1 


140 


5.860 


2.879 


1124.1 


.806 


124.1 


145 


6.662 


3.273 


1125.6 


.909 


110.0 


1.50 


7.548 


3.708 


1127.2 


1.022 


97.8 


155 


8.535 


4.193 


1128.7 


1.145 


87.3 


160 


9.630 


4.731 


1130.2 


1.333 


75.0 


165 


10.843 


5.327 


1131.7 


1 . 432 


69.8 


170 


12.183 


5.985 


1133.3 


1.602 


62.4 


175 


13.654 


6.708 


1134.8 


1.774 


56.4 


180 


15.291 


7.511 


1136.3 


1.970 


50.8 


185 


17.044 


8.375 


1137.8 


2.181 


45.9 


190 


19.001 


9.335 


1139.4 


2.411 


41.5 


195 


21.139 


10.385 


1140,9 


2.662 


37.6 


200 


23.461 


11.526 


1142.4 


2.933 


34.1 


205 


25.994 


12.770 


1143.9 


3.225 


31.0 


210 


28.753 


14.126 


1145.5 


3.543 


28.2 


212 


29.922 


14.700 


1146 1 


1 3 683 


27.2 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 275 

The temperature of steam at different pressures can 
be found in Table LXIX. To use this table, add 14.7 to 
the reading of the gauge to get absolute pressure; the 
quantities desired will be opposite this figure. 

Usually 15 pounds added to the gauge pressure to get 
the absolute pressure will be sufficiently accurate for all 
ordinary purposes. 

In the foregoing table the properties of saturated 
steam are given for pressures above atmosphere, or for 
gauge pressures. In Table LXX, on the other hand, will 
be found the properties of saturated steam at less than 
atmospheric pressures, or at partial vacuums. 

Booster Heaters. — A higher temperature is some- 
times required for water in a building for some particular 
purpose, than is needed for the entire building. In such 
cases a booster heater can be used to heat the water for the 
special purposes. This is done by passing the hot water 
through a heater with steam coil, thereby raising the tem- 
perature of the hot water to the required degree. There 
are no cold water connections to a booster. 

Heating Water with Gas 

Kinds of Gas. — There are four different kinds of gas 
which are used for water heating. They are coal gas, oil 
gas, water gas, and natural gas. Acetylene gas and pro- 
ducer gas are not considered here. Coal gas is produced by 
the distillation or driving off of the light hydrocarbons, or 
gas, from coal. Nothing is added to the gas, and the by- 
products of distillation are coke, tar and ammonia. There 
is very little coal gas used now commercially. 

Oil gas is made in much the same manner as coal gas, 
by the process known as destructive distillation. This con- 
sists of heating the oil to a very high temperature, thereby 
causing the heavy hydrocarbons to break up into the lighter 
or gaseous form. Animal and vegetable fats and oils, waste 
fats that occur in the manufacture of woolens, and ordinary 
rosins are used as well as petroleum in the manufacture of 
oil gas. 



276 Principles and Practice of Plumhing 

Water gas, which is probably more extensively manu- 
factured than any other kind of gas for general distribu- 
tion, is made cormnercially by the contact of steam with 
incandescent carbon in the form of anthracite coal or coke. 
The steam is decomposed, the hydrogen being separated 
from the oxygen. The oxygen then takes up carbon from 
the coal or coke. 

This gas would burn with a non-luminous flame and 
would be useless for lighting except with incandescent 
mantels, so in practice the water gas is enriched with oil 
gas which furnishes the hydrocarbon necessary to make a 
luminous flame, but adds very little to the heating quality 
of the gas. 

The illuminating power of gas is determined by its 
cancUepou'er. The candlepower is measured while the gas 
is burning in an open burner at the rate of five cubic feet 
per hour, by comparing the light given off with that of a 
standard candle. A standard candle is one that will burn 
120 grains of spermaceti per hour. 

As a standard of quality, the candle power of gas is 
giving way to the more rational one of heat value, gas being 
used now almost exclusively for heating, not for lighting. 

Heat Units in Gas. — There is no one definite number 
of heat units, B. T. U., that can be given as the heat value 
of gas. As has already been pointed out, there are three 
processes of manufacture of artificial gas, also natural gas, 
all of which are used throughout the country. Of the man- 
ufactured gases, two or more kinds are sometimes com- 
bined, as, for instance, when oil gas is added to water gas, 
so that the exact amount of heat given off by a cubic foot of 
gas will depend upon the standard of the local gas company, 
which should be taken into account when computing the 
amount of water that can be heated by gas in that locality. 

Artificial gas is generally said to contain 700 heat units, 
and natural gas from 740 to 1117 heat units, according to 
the territory where the natural gas is produced. As a 
matter of fact, the heat contained in manufactured gas 
varies from 500 to 600 B. T. U. It seldom exceeds 650. 
It is governed by laws in some states, and the present 



Princivles and Practice of Plumbing 277 

tendency seems towards establishing a standard of 525 B. 
T. U. per cubic foot of manufactured gas. 

Automatic Water Heaters.* — A thorough under- 
standing of what is meant by the rated capacity of a heater 
must be had before an intelligent selection of size can be 
made. 

Every instantaneous automatic and multi-coil storage 
heater has a definite rated capacity, which expresses in the 
case of the instantaneous automatic water heater the num- 
ber of gallons per minute, and in the multi-coil storage 
heater the number of gallons per hour, that the heater will 
deliver at any given rise in temperature with its normal gas 
consumption. 

For the sake of convenience the heaters have generally 
been numbered to correspond to the number of gallons they 
will deliver, raising the temperature 63° F. Therefore, a 
No. 4 heater has a rated capacity at 63° rise in temperature 
of 4 gallons per minute, but should the required rise be 80° 
instead of 63°, the rated capacity of a 4-gallon heater would 
be 3.15 gallons instead of 4 gallons, while if the required 
temperature rise be only 50°, the rated capacity of the 
4-gallon heater would be 5.04 gallons per minute. In the 
case of the multi-coil storage heater, the rated capacity of 
the No. 200 heater at 63° temperature rise is 200 gallons 
per hour, while if the required temperature rise be 80°, the 
rated capacity will be 157 gallons per hour, but should the 
temperature rise required be only 50°, the rated capacity 
would be 252 gallons per hour. The above is based upon the 
consumption of 1 cubic foot of gas having a heat value of 
650 B. T. U. for each gallon of water raised 63°. 

A rule by which the rated capacity of any instantaneous 
automatic or multi-coil storage heater for any given tem- 
perature rise may be found is as follows : 

Rule — Multiply the size of the heater by 63, the result 
of which will be the degree-gallon capacity of the heater; 
divide this result by the number of degrees the temperature 
is to be raised and the result will be the rated capacity of 

♦Data compilea by American Gfas Association, 



o- 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



the heater at that temperature rise. For conrenience. f** 
formula would be as foUows : 

Sac B— AerX^S 

T-. . .,.,,, - - ■ =^ Rated capadty ©f heater, 

esipeiatiue nse m desires i— --- j "-^" 

From this it follows that if the required flow and tem- 
perature raise is known, by the use of the following for- 
mula tiie size number of the heater may be determined. 

How X teMperatiiFe rise 

^ z=~-^ - : -rater. 

For example: K it is required to ddiver 4.50 gallons 
per minute with a temperature rise of 90® 

7 >r. -: - r :':.- -:zi : r- ri :; be usee " :Ji:^ ease would 
be an 8-gallon per min : t : -:r.er. since the result is greater 
than a No. 6, and less than a No. 8, the next larger size. 

Where heaters are not numbered as described above the 
rated capacity ^lould be ascertained and this quantity sub- 
stitnted for the size number in the above formula. If the 
rated capacity is not given as at 63®, the d^ree rise given 
should be substituted also. 

Table LXXI shows the sizes manufactured in the in- 
stantaneous automatic water heater and Table LXXII the 



TABLE LXXI. 



Tapacitie- of In-tantaneous Autoro^atic 
Water Heaters 



- - 


''' 


--•: 


-- 


'-.' -i' I >' '_ ■ [ 


-- 




1^; i5*> 


1J4 1-80 


1.S7 


l->: 


1- : 3 jj 0-95 I 0-86 


- -. 


-- 


- J.63 


21% 


3.1.5 


2-62 


2-25 


1.97 . 1-75 1 1-58 


1.13 


1 ol 


1 21 


1.12 1 CL3 


3 


3.78 


3-15 


2-70 


2.36 


2.10 


1.89 


1.72 


1 .>s 


1 45 


1^5 ^126 


4 


5.C6 


4.20 


3.60 


3.15 


2.80 


2.52 


2.29 


2.10 


1-91 


1.80 1.68 


6 


7-58 


6-30 


5.40 


4.73 


4.20 


3.87 


3.52 
4.59 


3.-^ 


2.96 


2.76 2.58 


8 


10.10 


8.^ 


7.20 


6.30 5.60 


5.04 


4.20 


3.88 


3.60|3.36 



this table. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



279 



multi-coil storage heater, together with their capacities per 
minute and per hour respectively, at various temperature 
rises. 

TABLE LXXII. Capacities of Multi-Coil Storage Heaters 











Temperature ri. 


>e in Degrees 




Gals. 
















per 
























hour 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


no 


120 


130 


140 


150 


100 


126 


105 


90 


78.8 


70 


63 


57.2 


52.5 


48.4 


45 


42 


200 


252 


210 


180 


157.5 


140 


126 


114.5 


105.0 


97.0 


90 


84 


300 


378 


315 


270 


236.0 


210 


189 


172.0 


158.0 


145.0 


135 


126 


400 


505 


420 


360 


215.0 


280 


252 


229.0 


210.0 


194.0 


180 


168 


500 


630 


525 


450 


394.0 


350 


315 


287.0 


262.0 


242.0 


225 


210 



Note — Whore hoator.s are not nuniborort aocorfling* to jjallons per hour at 
0.'r rise, substitute Uie rating tor the size luimtx^r to use tliis table. 

It will be noted from the foregoing that it is a funda- 
mental mistake to believe that there is but one rated capac- 
ity for each heater, and that it is expressed by the size num- 
ber of the heater and that it applies for any rise of tempera- 
ture. 

As the temperature of the water is increased, the per 
minute capacity of the heater is correspondingly less, and it 
will be noted from the table that when an unusually high 
temperature is desired, the capacity of the heater is very 
considerably reduced. 

Since the greater number of automatic water heaters 
are installed in residences, the following recommendations, 
based on general practice, may be used as a guide in deter- 
mining the proper size heater to install in different size 
residences : 

3-gallon per minute heater or 40-gallon multi-coil stor- 
age system — Residences having one bath-room and kitchen 
sink, small family. 

4-gallon per minute heater or 50-gallon multi-coil stor- 
age system — Residences having one private bath-room, serv- 
ants' bath-room, kitchen sink, laundry trays. 

6-gallon per minute heater or 66 or 80-gallon multi-coil 
storage system — Residences having two private bath-rooms, 
servants' bath, one or two bedroom lavatories, kitchen sink 
and laundry trays. 



280 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

8-gallon per minute heater or 100-gallon multi-coil stor- 
age system — Residences having three or four private baths, 
servants' bath-room, two or three bedroom lavatories, 
kitchen and pantry sinks, large laundry. Comparatively 
small family. 

Due to the large per minute gas requirements for the 
8-gallon per minute heater, it is frequently found more 
desirable, especially in houses of great length, to supply a 
3- or 4-gallon per minute heater for the supply of hot water 
for the entire laundry and kitchen, and install a 6-gallon per 
minute heater for the supply of water to various bath-rooms 
of the huse. 

100-gallon per hour heater with 100, 120 or 150-gallon 
tanks — Large residences having three to five bath-rooms, 
bath-room lavatories, large kitchen sink, pantry sink and 
laundry. Flat buildings with six apartments of four or five 
rooms each. 

200-gallon per hour heater with 120, 150 or 250-gallon 
tanks — Large residences having seven to ten bath-rooms, 
large kitchen sink, pantry sink, dishwashing machine, large 
laundry. Apartment buildings having ten to fourteen flats 
of five or six rooms each. 

300-gallon per hour heater with 250, 300 or 365-gallon 
tanks — Large residences having seven to ten bath-rooms, 
large kitchen sink, pantry sink, dish washing machine, large 
laundry. Apartment buildings having ten to fourteen flats 
of five or six rooms each. 

400-gallon per hour heater with 365 or 425-gallon tanks 
— Large apartment buildings having fourteen to twenty-five 
flats of five, six or seven rooms. Very large city homes. 
Thirty to fifty-room hotels. 

500-gallon per hour heater with 425, 500 or 600-gallon 
tanks — Apartment buildings having twenty to thirty flats 
of five, six or seven rooms each. Very large city homes. 
Forty to sixty-room hotels. 

Larger requirements may be met by using what are 
known as duplex storage systems, in which two or more 
multi-coil storage heaters are connected to a single tank of 
proper storage capacity. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



281 



While the above table may be used as a guide, unusual 
conditions may make it necessary to depart from it. 

The street main and the service from the main to the 
meter must be of sufficient size to supply the maximum 
demands of the heater. 

The gas supply should be run direct from the meter to 
the thermostat without any branches, and should be large 
enough for the maximum amount of gas required by the 
heater. 

As in the case of the instantaneous automatic water 
heater, a tag should be attached to the meter, stating that a 
multi-coil storage system is installed. 

The size of gas pipe, meter, and flue for automatic gas 
heaters can be found in Table LXXIII. 



TABLE LXXIII. 



Size of Pipes for Automatic Storage 
Systems 



Size of 


Water Supply 


Water Supply^ 


Gas Meter 


Gas Line to 


Diameter 


Heater 


to System 


to Fixtures 


Lt. 


Heater 


of Flue 


Gals. 


Inches 


Inches 




Inches 


Inches 


30 


H 


H 


10 


H 


3 


50 


1 


1 


10 


H 


4 


100 


1 to 13^ 


1 to 13^ 


10 


1 


4 


200 


1 to 13^ 


1 to 13^ 


30 


1 


6 


300 


IK to 2 


13^ to 2 


45 


13^ 


6 


400 


13/^ to 2 


11^ to 2 


60 


13^ 


7 


500 


2 to 23^ 


2 to 23^ 


80 


2 


8 



In Tables LXXIV to LXXX inclusive, will be found 
records of the actual performance of water heaters in sev- 
eral different types of buildings. The data were compiled 
by the American Gas Association, and the gas used had an 
approximate heat value of 650 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 



282 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 






o 

o 
Q 

'00 

s 

■♦-» 












II 



00 oc o 
o o lo «d • 

O O «0 CO 1— I 
CO CO 



05 1:^ 

lO 1— I lO »C 1— ( 
Oi r- 1 CO CO 
CO CO i-H 

CO l-H 




&fi 

a; 

r -'^^ 

^^ 

ajs+H q;T3 

^w o a; 4-3 «+-! 
r ^ !» os • 

So ^ ^ ^ 

^ fl 0) o ^ 

o 2 "S 1^ fed 

g O (D O 03 

n 5^ S 2 5« 

O ro o (1) ro 



X 



-1-3 

o 



o 



<u 


n 




;:. 


n 


-*-> 


PQ 


O 


fl 


u 


o 


O 


-M 


P 
















be 

P 

w 

o 
X 

o 
Q 

be 

-M 

05 



X 
X 












a o 



CO CO rH 

!>• O CO O i-H 
CO O CO CO 
•CO C^ rl 

CO 1—1 



!> O l> 1— t T— I 
T— I to CO CO 
CO 00 1—1 
1:^ Oi 



(MOO-* 
CO O CO (M 

l>. r— I T— I 

Oi (M 



T3 
OJ 



IS o 'O 
'^ .s S3 -*^ 

25 -g fcH t> c;. ^ 

3 fl Jh fH ^ > 

H r3 ^ ^ 1> 



3 :3 c3 

^ G ;_, ^< ^ S 

g O o; O 03 -^ 

P W G, P. & o 

*^ 2 S S <" '-^^ 

'^ ra 4) a) 03 c3 




<u 03 g c:) 
, -- „ ^ - „ O :« O ^ 



LO !>. to 

«-4 — ^ >-^ 



fl Oj 43 
" 7^ 03 

t-. 1— 1 1— f 



-+J '-^ "3 

^ go 
•2u '. 

-^ e 

S tT e 
-*PQa2 



Principles and Practice of Phimbing 



28^ 



•n V 



2 >» 

a CIS 



a 

.5 «« 



:/2 






(N "^ Tt< 

O O lO rfi (M 

CO O t^ CO 

-^ o 



»0 t^ i-0 

T— I uf »0 '^ C^^ 

CX' l^ t^ CO 
CO 'f r-, 

CO jC 



o 



oc 



t^ O (M O " 

QO O l-^ CO 



iC 3 






^1 






00 



CO 3 

L'5 o 



,_ !K fc- t^ 

-'^5 5 

00 C Ch 

CO 



'^ zr.ja 






^ P ^ 



->?, _r S ^ S 3 - :^,^.^ 






5; 


C 



-+^ 


rr 





crt 


^ 


'h 



O 4) 

3 3 cj X ^ 

£ S fe S I 

£1, Ci. Cl-K^ o 

S £ M ^ '43 

O O <5 • c3 



^ ^ ^ 

?s - ^ 

S S 5? 

S C« r^ 

C3 4j O 



iZ: 






^c='a- 



K 



C*0 iO -rf -^-^ C5 
CO lO '—' >C •— ' 



c o 

~ s 

^ a; 



Sf 
3 53 
3 ?s 



tops 
.S "^ 

"•43 ^ 

^ 05 

3 bC 

.530 

I- 



c G a 

+^ c3 <I> 

rr "^ ^ 

PQ 



c-i 



S 



3 

W 

o 

o 

Q 

b£ 

a 



> 

X 
X 











00 


1 


(U^ 


10 -* 


u u 




•^0) 


im' CO >-* 


f=^ 


OI>- -^ 


W"^ 


CO t^ 1—1 




00 CO 




CO »o 


>> 


CO 


u 


«o ^ 


2 >> 




C rt 


"—I CO r>. »-i 


■-oQ 


•-( rt^ r^ CO 


ti 


i-H f »-^ 





i-O 




,—1 


S 


!>. 


3 


QC 


c >> 




.S 1* 


(M i-C l> ^ 


SQ 


--< 00 '*■ 


« 


00 >— 1 '-< 


^ 


r-( C^ 




i-lfM 










Ph* 


•^ 










5P 


I— • 










0) 

a; 


;;^ . 










bC 


^C3 J5 








c/: 






cc 


-4^ 


11 


3 SoS 




"^ -^^rS-^^^-SJ^ 




fell Q - -Zl (^ '-^00 

,^^ oc -rj _: -.H sTrT' 

g^-C ^ g 5 x.^.t: 

lillHlll 








•^ 'B B B ^- '■*^ -^ <^ 7:^ 




o^SScjojoa® 




WOE^HOWWW-^ 




00 CO 01 




CO ".O 1 ^ 




CO ^ I 00 




.'1 . ' "^ 






• • 72 






.-^ . 






!/} . "^ 


'/) 






u 








• rt 


*-> 






_x 


;: 


-lal 




'^ K^b£ 




-C j-; C C 




g^^'-S 




— 3 ti "-^ 




5£-S^*3 




OCuWffl 




M 1 dJ 




F bC 




"tS '^ ae 




^^32 S 




^«l 




-u u »2 


s 


^ 3-= 


0) 
CO 


^ 




■-^j tToo 




S-§ - 




^^ 5 




--ffl^ 




t< 


rt 6 




^^ 




a 


1-H 


n 




>-* <-» 










1 



284 



Principles and Practice of Ptumhing 



OD 

o 

S3 

§ 

•♦* 

S3 

Q 

s 

-** 

4> 
-** 








^ 











e»-f; 


L-: X n c: »c cc w t^ 


"Sf 






t^oc^i — ri t^ooic^ 


ri o -^ r-: X o a: CI 


«B 


* C^ '— ^ C"! "^ 












^ r^ — r^ 




— ic 




r-t --C ~ rr '^ -^ 


«>. t 


&fc3 


^^ ^^ *^1 *^ "^1 ^^ ^^ **^ 1^ ^— 


«Q 1 


oof^rc" i^OXC-l 


^ 






ri t^ -^ X 




■ -_' ■ 


■ '_' 




X 


• at • 




3 - 


• o - 




p - ; 


- o . 








- ^ - 




g pc - 




- sc . 








- o . 




~ - • * "^ — 




•r3 . 












;> - '.^--z i 




. ■-d' : 




o - -^ © - > 




p^ p . 




ti - - BE 5^ - ~ 




X S • 






^.5 : 




»-- - - Ci .ll. . -^ 








~ _x .— J; -r z _x 




5:i£ - 














^ a = ;:;3-— .- 2: 6 -sS^ 




(^ _r "x;:-; — --— xs_; 




'T 5;—'"^ ^ S - 5—"-- ^ S 




S = ^Si_" < % ^ ^ ^ ^ 




<:_— ~^n_ .^II = ~~~ 




--5^^^.^ z^i^^r* 




^ci^i^T"" <:5^r;7:T^ 




r^^c— Z.— r-^8z.2.— 




^-gx^^x ^%EEj& 














^ '•-' ^ ^ "^^ — -^^ .. ^ "^^ 




r- 




^ c c; ri 














^^. Ci, ^— '•^ 




^ =f T= - 2 




2-=5 S 




5'x c. "JE^^ 






a 


. "^ ;^ ^ • ZZ ^ *— • 




^ ^ X y 7- =£ ^ r 


3 


T * "^ -- "* T ^ 


«-» 






llil l|ii| 








jl|j ^1 1 * 




« " — - *- ''*• _^_ Z^ T^ ^ 








's^ ~- 3^x7 












:c* r- — CJO 






J; r "5 




-i ^ X 




^'i3 




^~ — "71 








'I J -a 


>> 


O ^i 


CO 


■ — ^ ^ -^..r 




"T^ — i-^ 




^ _i - ~J1 




^ 5"p 5 




1^22 is ^ 




C-l 


^^ 




=s2 




>5 


»— » 


fiO 




^-» ■** 






1 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



285 













to 












(N 










»o 














O: 








1 


<u 


LO 


05 








CO 


to CO 




to 


(N 


CO rtH Tf 




Tf O O (M 


i-H 




>0 O 05 CO 


1—1 


CO OOO (M (N 




(N O ''^^ -* (M 


h- O to •^ CO 


O O (M O 






CI Ot^ (M 




CO O Oi -^ 




CO O 00 CO 




CO O I:^ <M 


cS^ 


ro Tt< ^ T-H 






0:> CO 


1— ( 




■^ OO 1-1 




(N to 1-1 




Tt^ C'O i-H 


'+' 00 






■rf CO 






r-( CO 




Of t^ 




<M 00 






CO" 








(M 


lO 






C 




S 


^ O CO "^ 


o 




r^ 




CO 


CO 






rfH 


r^ 


C 03 


1—1 




CO b- C5 CO 


1—1 


to CO t^ ^ (M 




to O to Tt^ (N 


O C: CO rhi CO 


CO CO (N CO 






C5 ^ 


l>(M 




Oi 1-^ Oi '^ 




1— 1 O 00 CO 




CO CO r^ (M 


'SJ^ 


Ci »— 1 i— 1 1— 1 






CO O: 


1—1 




1— 1 lO T-H 




-^ O '-I 




CO 1—1 T— 1 




lO '—1 
















1—1 




1—1 


i 




























oc" 








<M 


CO 






'^ 




g 


^ 


GO 




to 




CO 


to CO 




to 


c: 


(N 


2 >. 


(M O 1^ O 


1—1 




(M O O to 


1—1 


(N O (M to cq 




(m' O (N (N 




to O to to CO 


S rt 


Tt< O O to 






CO O 00 (M 




CO o o ^ 




l^ O 00 CO 




OOl^(N 




t^ Ttl T-H ,-( 






00 T-H 


T— 1 




C^ t^ <-! 1— 1 




t^ to 1-H 




■<rH CO 1—1 


1—1 






^ 










1 — 1 




1—1 














'q; 




















































ph 




5r! 








fi< 












fe 












f=H 










fiH ; 










bb 




1 








bb 












bb 












bb 










bb ■ 










(U 




o3 








QJ 












OJ 












CP 










OJ 










T3 




^ 








T3 












'O 












'T^ 










'c : 










73 




'o 








t3 












tj" 












'13 










'^ : 










2^ 




<u 








a? 












2^ 
































Oi 




5h 








Oi 












CD 












<D 










<D • 








P^.S; 




:3 






^> 








■*^^ t 








^f^ > 








fe^ :| 












C3 

CD 














t+H . 'r^ 








«4-l . 1-3 












y 






a: 


-l-= 








K 








K 






a 


■4^' ^.^ '■ 1 








s 


bC ^ 




(■i-t 


lnl£ 






-t-= 










bc o-r 






•"O .i; -jth fe. Us 
23 ^j tH i> a 






c 




CO <U (U -SP 




c 


is 


<D o 


-K 


02 &H 0) QJ - 




CB Ph O) OJ 






3 C s-c »-i 


,^ 




!-i ^ 


1— H 


Hi c ^-1 fH ^• 




g O CD (U 






ZI S ^ ^ 


C^ 


o 


:3 :3 


o3 


t, S ;3 ^ c3 




c 


■§ «=! 2 S f-. 
^ O o o o 




i^ 22 "^ '^ 
1:; c3 ;-( vh 


bC 


13 


03 03 


bC 


9 o (V o o 




bj 

Sh 




S Q (i; <u 


o 


;-! 


O <X) 


o 




a; 




^ o aa 


a 


^ 


Q.Cl.i^ 




^oaaa t?oo.D^D-l 




-t^ cc S S 
O c3 (V| Qj 


OS 




-t^ a: 


a a 


^ 


1:? s a a ^ 

O j3 2> 53 03 




^ s s a 

O TO (T) (D 


02 


-^^ 2 a a «2 

O ra fl^ /n o3 




ffiOHHO<:WC 


HH 


o 


wohho 




wohhc 


mohho 




















o 






M 


















CO 

l-H 






u 


















•^ 




o3 


3 


















m 




,£5 


>>{ 








cc 










C 




73 


iii 


'> '> 


j:: 


(« 


§1 


^5 


"a 


.5 M-fi c 








to 2 d 

a ^'s 




rt.S o.S 


-tj 


-O 


^ K 


^-a 


_0 fl^ 


^ ^ -u o 




-1-3 O (» o3 






c3 


3 


f- -^ 


=3 G- 


c3 3 03 <D 




03^03 0, 




O >^ c3 c3 




:^ cc 3 «2 


-D 


-H5 


^ IC 


x^ S 


^»o 


S^ ^Si c^ 




-O-^^ c3 




o C^^ 






^H 


(N 


^-^ 


t^ t>. (M r-H 


•^ C^CO Oi 




05 Oi 05 05 




<N to '— < '— 1 




1 












'd. 




"o 




CO 




"*^ tM 












bC 








>i 




■is c3 












c3 bC 

5i c 






•^ d 5 


S 

01 














-a- 

o3 o 








O d c3 
rd o bC 

d--- o 


C/2 














-a o S 




.2 "*^ c3 
co^ 




O «^^ 
o o _ 

co^ ^ 




v; G 


n 














w 






«! 6 

II 


r— 1 


c 

-1-3 


It 


c O 

-t-= OJ 
















(M 


a; 

o 
P5 


o 

> 

C! 
o 
o 


C3 M 
0,-1-3 

-ga 


O 


O 

C 
03 


CO 


cc O Ji 

ir+l -^ &■ 


to 

-t-3 


Tf* 


COX5 





286 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



s 

O 



© 

Q 

be 

c 

"4.* 














<N 


1 


flj 


10 


w ^ 




ZS V, 


»— 1 '-^ i— =< 




1-! ooicc 


Oi ^ 




t^ 




^ (M 




CO 


6 





i^- 


ur^ '— 1 i— t T-H 


GO L'T CO 


■gQ 


•<# 1-i 


S 


CI :* 







S 


10 


3 ^ 




.§^ 


CO (M T-H 


CO 


ijQ 


Ot^ 1-1 


C8 


CO "* 


S 












P^ 












do- 












<y 












'cS 












'^'^ 












Cy 












?-^ 





















^^.& 








=+-( . -— * 








. hC 'ii 






^ 3^-'r: 










2 ^ tH :? 




33 a Q .-v - 




3 a ;-( M^- 
i. S 3 S^ 




^ 3 ^j ^ j^ 




^ ^ cs g f: 
1^ § S fe fe 






(s u aa & 




■^ SS 2 S 5S 

03 a) (T) C3 




kohho 


4J 








3 




*J 




_>^ 






cc 


ijH 


rr OJ (K' _^ 
^ ^r '-^ -r. ^T 




^ "m -O 7, 45 a 




r-l CO (M ^ CO 




C^ 1— 1 1— t T-i C^ >-0 




^ ;^o 




i) "71 lO 




-g <^^(M 




'■>• '^ r^ 




^ ^^ ^^ 




fc< -3 


P 


"t; ->-i c^ 




2 =31^ 


>» 


fl ^ 02 ,^ 


CAl 


.9 d "of^s 




-g ^ fi.SJ 




(U oj fc- -^i -^ 




X -;3 OJ c3 • . 




r-l*0==!3'si 




rH^H Ci 6>C 




■=? 


^ , 


1 


CS o 


M IM 


5:2: 


_ >>^ 03 I"! 1 rn 


c .2 
1— 1 \i^ 


1^'^ S g i 

-« fl ? Sl. e 






w 


C" 


P f- 


t. ^\ 



CO CO 



O 
O 



I 






3 Gi 
P •• 



"^ o 

CO +i 






r/; 



■J O i_c 

o l; " - 

5<C0 5=fc 
•? ^-^ .-^ 

O '^' Cl, 

P <s ^ 

^ ^ - 

i a § 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



28t 






.5^ 






a) 

o 

-** 

s 
ed 



4> 



nl O 

=2: 



Tt^ 



»0 



t>. 05 ec c<i i-H 



CO 

o o t^ c; c^ 

1-H (M l>. CI 



1^ 

-^ <* (N 

O O lO O <N 

lO o t^ ?o 



o 

»0 LO to I— ' 

t^ O Q 00 C^l 
O iM CD C<) 



lO 






o; iM 00 CO --I 



CO to 00 
CO »o t>- ci c^i 

Tf 1— 1 I> CI 



»o 



40 O CO 



<M O to C 01 

Ci to r^ CO 



>0 O i-H Ci r^"! 
— i <:0 O (N 



to to 

X to 00 (M »-* 
CO '^ ^-' 



00 
\j*\*CO 



CO 



O O O ^ «M 
CO to or CO 

C^l to r-^ 



to 



o 



O O to O C^l 
O O t^ CO 

CO cc --H 



t^ O t>. to I— I 
»-H «0 to CI 
CI CO <— t 



^ _ 



SO 



feJD 

OJ c5 ^ 

^ u -^ 

o c o 

S S (K 

O O 53 



c3 



Sao 



_:• ^ 02 c3 • 

^-3 t- (> « 

02 GJ .o ca ;n 

^ 5£ c3 cS -^ 

*j c; fc, u M 

^ u Q^ u. &< 

-fJ CO S £ cc 

O o3 a; Qj c5 



■ feii 






g o 

C C3 

KO 






^ 


03 


•r: 


OJ -*^ 




. r/) 


n 


• 


•-bn 


r> 


y 


^-* 




c 


O 


a 


.s 


l-H 


^ 


^ 


2 


3 


rt 


-M 


-^ 


hr 


Ijj 


(Ti 




kl 






<D 


(1) 


o 


a&cu 


6 S 


^ 


CJ 


CI) 


ui 


HH 


O 



b£ 

<y 
-^ 

-« 
c» 

.--'- i cs -; 

S-TS '-' -^ « 

CO OJ QJ C) -^ 
"" ^ u u ^ 

^ S 3 ci 

^ 22 c3 C3 -• 

^ C ^< fcH s- 

S O «i o; o; 

-M CO S g a> 

C C3 o aj ^ 



a: 



ct 



CO CO CI CO 



"^ "^ _i^ C 

c3 03 12 2 

Tti CO CO CO 



2S c «) 



CO 



1 

.33 



S cc ,^ 



O 00 CI to --^ 



jzi .a i> CO tw 

-^ -^ ^ ^ to 
CO CO •^ ci ^ 



G^'fl 



CI 

.2 
w rzi 

'7} 3 



O O 

2 o 

C3 ^ 

O diM 

*^ c3 S 
CJ t» ^ 

'-^ ^-: 
o ce 

COJ3 bC 



-^^ c 

• fcC 

2 b£343 

- to 3 

2^ <" ^ 

«2 o o 

COJ2 d 



-»^ fl 
^^ 

2 bC43 

.2 "IS 

»^ O O 

COJ2 d 



cc S 
a; oj 



CI 



cc C 

co^ « 



2 '^ 
co*5 £ t^ 
S ^^ 

coxj S 



® <U 03 



288 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
TANKS FOR STORING HOT WATER 



Range Boilers. — Range boilers are storage tanks for 
hot water. They are usually located near the kitchen range, 
and the water in them is heated by the waterback in the 
range. Some boilers are made of copper, some of wrought- 
iron and some of steel. Wrought iron and steel boilers are 
made plain, painted and galvanized. Range boilers of larger 
capacity than 200 gallons are not made in stock sizes. 

Copper Boilers. — Copper boilers are made for both low 
pressure and for heavy pressure water supplies. A low 
pressure boiler is made of light cold-drawn copper, polished 
on the outside and generally tinned on the inside. They are 
tested to about 75 pounds pressure, and are suitable only for 
systems where the pressure does not exceed 20 pounds per 
square inch. The chief objection to boilers of this type is 
their liability to collapse from atmospheric pressure when 
the water is in any way siphoned from them. Copper boil- 
ers, while they cost more, are better than iron boilers for 
storage purposes. They are cheaper in the end as they last 
longer, and rust will not accumulate in the boiler to discolor 
clothes in washing, as it does with black or galvanized iron 
boilers. 

Safety Copper Boilers. — Safety copper boilers are 
made with internal brass ribs to reinforce them. In some 
types of safety boilers, the internal rib runs spirally around 
the boiler from one end to the other. Reinforcing boilers 
makes them proof against collapsing from external pressure. 

Safety copper boilers are tested before shipping. There 
are two grades of safety boilers : one tested to 150 pounds 
pressure and guaranteed to stand a working pressure of 100 
pounds ; the other tested to 250 pounds pressure and guar- 
anteed to stand a working pressure of 150 pounds. Both 
grades are guaranteed against collapsing, provided no check 
valve is used on the cold water supply to the boiler. If a 
check valve is used it confines to the boiler the water that 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 289 

would otherwise expand back into the water mains, when 
the water in the boiler is heated, and expansion might sub- 
ject the boiler to a pressure far in excess of what it is guar- 
anteed to stand. Copper boilers are the best-appearing 
range boilers made. They are easily stained green, how- 
ever, and they radiate heat to surrounding objects at a 
greater rate than do iron boilers. 

Galvanized Range Boilers. — These boilers are made 
for both standard and extra heavy pressures. The stand= 
ard boilers are generally marked tested to 150 pounds press- 
ure and rated to stand a working pressure of 85 pounds. 

The extra heavy boilers are marked tested to a pressure 
of 200 pounds and rated to stand a working pressure of 150 
pounds. Galvanized range boilers are made both single and 
double riveted. Single rivet boilers have but one row of 
rivets along the seam, while double rivet boilers have a 
double row of rivets along the seam. 

Galvanized range boilers are galvanized after being, 
made, and are galvanized both inside and out. The coating 
of zinc deposited on both inner and outer surfaces helps to 
make the joints and rivets water-tight. Galvanized range 
boilers are not all guaranteed, and notwithstanding the 
stenciled statement printed on each boiler that it has been 
tested to a certain pressure, they are seldom tested before 
leaving the factory, and are not suitable for pressure of 
more than one-half that which they are marked tested. 

Mud Drum for Boilers. — In localities where the water 
supply carries large quantities of clay or loam in suspension, 
a boiler with a mud drum or sediment chamber. Fig. 131, 
may be used. The boiler will then serve as a settling basin 
and most of the suspended matter will settle to the bottom of 
the boiler and into the sediment space. It can then be 
washed out at suitable intervals by opening the blow-off cock 
at the bottom of the boiler. If the particles held in sus- 
pension in the water are comparatively coarse, about fifty 
per cent, will be removed by sedimentation. 

Hot Water Tanks. — Hot water tanks are large 
wrought-iron or steel storage tanks of 200 gallons or more 
capacity, used in connection with water heaters. They are 



290 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



generally used plain or painted, but are seldom galvanized. 
Large hot water tanks are seldom carried in stock, but are 
made to order. A sketch, showing the location and size of 
all outlets should accompany all orders for hot water tanks. 
The size of the tank and pressure of the water should always 
be considered when ordering, and when storage tanks are 
extremely large and subject to great internal pressure, stay 
bolts and cross braces should be used to give the tank addi- 
tional strength. Boilers and 
tanks, of whatever type or make, 
should be tested and guaranteed 
to stand a pressure of at least 
double the static pressure of the 
water to be stored. This is to 
provide a factor of safety for 
occasions when the internal 
pressure is increased by the ex- 
pansion of the water w^hen 
heated, or the increased press- 
ure, perhaps double the static 
pressure, due to water hammer. 
Supports for Boilers and 
Tanks. — Range boilers are 
usually placed alongside the 
kitchen range in a vertical posi- 
tion, where they rest upon a cast 
iron boiler stand. When range 
boilers are placed horizontally 
they usually rest on iron brack- 
ets attached to the top or back 
of the range. Horizontal stor- 
age tanks are generally sup- 
ported by iron bands attached to the iron floor beams above. 
When they are set vertically they are supported by iron 
frames or legs. Large tanks should have cross braces 
within to give them strength to withstand racking stresses. 
Proportioning Size of Tank and Boilers. — Range 
boilers and heater tanks are used to store water heated by 
waterback or water heater during periods when hot water 




Fig. 131 
Sediment Chambers for Boiler 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 291 

is not being drawn. It thus provides a supply to draw upon 
when hot water is used faster than it can be heated by the 
waterback or heater. Also, it allows a smaller heater to be 
used than would be the case if water were drawn direct from 
a heater and had to be heated as fast as used. 

The size of a tank for storing hot water should bear a 
certain relation both to the capacity of the heater and to the 
number of gallons of hot water used daily. If the tank is 
too large for the heater there will never be a supply of hot 
water in the tank, and if the tank is too small the water will 
become heated to above 212 degrees, and when released from 
the faucet will flash instantly into steam ; also in many cases 
it will cause a rattling, snapping sound in the heater. 

An ordinary range has a waterback with a heating sur- 
face of about 110 square inches exposed to the fire. A 
waterback of such a size will ordinarily heat sufficient water 
for an average size family. It can be used in connection 
with any size boiler, from 35 to 50 gallons capacity. The 
size of the boiler should depend upon the probable amount of 
hot water that will be used daily. If the water is used uni- 
formly throughout the day, and almost as fast as it is 
heated, a 35-gallon boiler will be sufficiently large. If, on 
the other hand, the water is drawn intermittently, with long 
intervals between drafts, a larger boiler should be used to 
store the water heated during the intervals. 

In public and semi-public buildings, where large quan- 
tities of hot water are used, the heater must be large enough 
to heat water as fast as it will probably be used during 
periods of average consumption, and the hot water tank 
should be large enough to store sufficient water for one 
hour's maximum supply. For instance, in an apartment 
house where the probable maximum consumption of hot 
water would equal 250 gallons per hour, and the average 
consumption 125 gallons per hour, the heater should be 
capable of heating at least 125 gallons per hour, from ordi- 
nary temperature to 180 degrees, and in hotels and laun- 
dries the tank should have a storage capacity of 250 gallons. 

Water is seldom used hotter than 130 degrees Fahren- 
heit, so that water of higher temperature mixed with cold 



292 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



water increases the volume of available hot water. In 
Table LXXXI can be found the temperature at which hot 
water is used in buildings of different classes. 

The size of hot water tank required for a large building 
depends so much upon conditions peculiar to that building 
that a satisfactory rule applicable to all cases cannot be 
formulated. A safe rule is to allovv' a sufficient capacity in 
the tank for the maximum hourly consumption. An ap- 
proximation that will be found sufficient for most apartment 
houses is to allow from o to 7 gallons capacity in the tank 
for each inmate the building will accommodate. For large 
hotels and public institutions that have accommodations for 
300 and more people, a smaller allowance, about from 2 to 

TABLE LXXXI. Water Temperatures Required for Various 

Classes of Service 



ben.nce 



Garages (for washiag cars) 

Greneral domestic use 

Laundry (hand work) 

Laundry (machine work) 

Barber shop (not sterihzing) 

Bars and soda fountains (hot drinks) 

Lavatory and cleaning uses 

Baths only 

Shower baths 

Swimming pools 

Baptistries 

Dishwashing (hand work) 

Dishwashing (^machine) 

Milk dealers (not sterih?:ing or pasteurizing) 



Temperature required 


^Minimum 


Maximum 


80 


100 


130 


160 


115 


212 


180 


212 


115 


150 


175 


212 


115 


150 


110 


150 


110 


150 


SO 


212 


80 


212 


130 


91 9 


180 


212 


115 


150 



4 gallons per capita, will be found sufficient. Take the case 
of a twelve-family apartment house in which sleeping 
accommodations are provided in each apartment for four 
people, and in the janitor's apartment for two. That would 
make accommodations in the building for 50 people. Allow- 
ing 7 gallons capacity in the hot-water tank for each inmate 
of the building, it would require a 350-gallon storage tank 
and a heater with a capacity of 175 gallons per hoiir, That 



principles and Practice of Plumbing 293 

_ ^p^ . . J, — 



will allow each tenant of the building to take a hot bath 
within an hour, and have a sufficient supply for the purpose. 
It will take each person fifteen minutes to take a bath. At 
the beginning of the hour, there is in the tank 350 gallons 
of water at a temperature of about 200 degrees, and the 
heater is supplying water at that temperature at the rate of 
175 gallons per hour, making a total of about 525 gallons of 
water at a temperature of 200 degrees available within 60 
minutes. That will allow for each bather, 101/2 gallons of 
hot water of that temperature. A bath at any temperature 
between 98 and 104 degrees Fahrenheit is considered a hot 
bath, so if we allow for the water to be used at a tempera- 
ture of 110 the allowance will be safe. Assuming that the 
water in the street main is at a temperature of 65 degrees, 
then, mixing 101/2 gallons of water at 200 degrees with 21 
gallons of water at a temperature of 65 degrees, would give 
a resultant temperature to the entire mixture of 110 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the temperature required for bathing. Now, 
30 gallons of water is sufficient for a bath, either shower or 
stationary; and, as it will be very seldom that all tenants 
will bathe within the same hour, there will invariably be a 
reserve supply always on hand. At the same allowance, 
this would give each family 120 gallons of water the first 
hour at a temperature of 110 degrees for washing, and 
about 15 gallons at a temperature of 200 degrees for wash- 
ing clothes ; and this allowance will be found to be sufficient 
for all purposes. 

Each class of building must be considered separately. 
In an apartment house the maximum consumption of hot 
water would be at the hour of arising. At this time break- 
fast is in progress and there is so little dish washing or 
clothes washing being done that it is negligible. It is not 
likely that more than four baths can be taken in an hour in 
any one bath tub. As a matter of fact, the average would 
probably be below two, but maximums are what must be 
provided for. 

The temperature of water in which people like to bathe 
varies with the individual. Baths in water from 65 to 80 
degrees Fahrenheit are considered cold ; in water from 80 to 



294 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

92 degrees Fahrenheit, tepid ; from 92 to 98 degrees Fahren- 
heit, warm; and from 98 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit, hot. 
Again the maximum must be taken, for when a person likes 
a hot bath he likes it hot. 

The problem is, then, to find the amount of hot water 
that will be required per hour for each bath tub. Having 
that, it can be multiplied by any number of baths. An 
ordinary five-foot tub when filled 51/4 inches deep, contains 
fifteen gallons of water. That is the depth of water per- 
haps most generally used. At a depth of 61^ inches, an 
uncomfortable depth, the tub contains twenty gallons of 
water. 

For a hot bath at a temperature of 100 degrees, water 
from the heater delivered at 180 degrees, and the cold water 
flowing at 60 degrees, would require 7 gallons of hot water 
and 13 gallons of cold water. That would be equal to 28 
gallons of hot water per family in an apartment house, and 
in a twelve-family apartment would require a hot water 
tank with a capacity of 12 X 28 equals 336 gallons, and a 
heater with a capacity of half that amount per hour. 

It will be observed that there is a liberal factor of 
safety in the foregoing proportion. In the first place, there 
would not be four baths per family in any one hour in every 
apartment. In the second place, if there should be, they 
would not all be hot baths at a temperature of 100 degrees ; 
and, finally, should 28 baths of 20 gallons each be taken in 
any one hour, at a temperature of 100 degrees, by the end 
of that hour the original hot water would all be drawn from 
the tank, but the heater would have replaced half that 
amount, so more than seventy-five per cent, in excess of the 
number of baths actually provided for could be taken. 

In the chapter on heating water by gas will be found 
the actual amount of hot water supplied per day, per maxi- 
mum hour and per week in buildings of various types. 

In Table LXXXII will be found useful data to aid in 
estimating the quantity of hot water required per hour in 
various types of buildings. 

Boiler and Tank Connections. — Connections be- 
tween tank and heater should be made with copper, brass or 



Principles and Practice of Pltunbing 



295 



iron pipe. Lead pipe is unsuitable for hot water connec- 
tions, as it expands when heated and upon cooling does not 
contract to its original length, but sags when run horizon- 
tally, thus forming traps in the pipe. Furthermore, the 

TABLE LXXXIL Estimating the Hot Water Required for 
Various Types of Buildings 

IIGURED AT FINAL TEMPERATURE OF 150 DEGREES 

GALLONS OF AVATEll PER HOUR PER FIXTURE 





4> 
01 
3 
O 

C 

a 

s 

U 

a 

a 
< 




3 

'35 
g 

o 


'S, 

to 




c 

3 

t 

c 
►-1 


13 


■a 
c 

c5 


C 

'3 

V 




CQ 
3 


4; 

c 

"S 
C5 

(U 
-u 

> 

'C 

3 

15 

15 




X 
y 

3 
10 
15 


< 

> 


Basin Private 
Lavatorj- 

Basin PubUc 
Lavatory 

Bath Tub'. 

Dish Washer 


3 

5 
15 
15 

3 
10 

25 

75 
10 
80 
20 


3 

5 
15 
30 

3 
20 

35 

75 

20 

150 

20 


3 

5 

30 

12 
150 


3 

8 
30 
30 

3 
20 

35 

100 

to 

180 

20 

80 

20 


3 

15 
30 
30 

"20 

200 
20 


3 

8 
30 
30 

3 
20 

35 
100 
to 
180 

20 

100 

30 


3 
5 


3 

5 


3 

8 
30 


3 
10 

30 
30 


Foot Basin 








Kitchen Sink 

Laundry Station- 
ary Tub 


42 
100 
to 
180 

10 






10 

25 

75 
10 
80 
15 


10 

'20 

200 

20 


20 
35 


Laundry Revolv- 
ing Tub (each) . 

Pantry Sink 

Shower. . . 


15 


100 
to 
180 

200 
15 


100 
to 
180 
20 

?m 


Slop Sink 


20 



Dish Washer 220 gal. per hr. at 180 for serving capacity of 500 people 



Recommended 
heating capacity 
in gals, per hour 
in P. C. of total 
water for all fix- 
tures 

Recommended 
storage capacity 
in gals, in P. C. of 
total water for all 
fixtures 



35% 



35% 



60% 



'/b 



80% 



40% 



459J 



'7c 



90% 



'7c 



-*^ /C 



100% 



50% 



20% 



40% 



50%. 



50% 



30% 



25^^ 



40% 



75% 



/o 



'/o 



joints on lead pipe are liable to be melted and pull apart 
when the temperature of the pipe becomes very high, or 
should the water be siphoned out of the boiler below the 



296 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



waterback, the heat from the fire would melt off the soldered 
joints. 

Circulation between water heater and tank is impeded 
by friction, therefore the ends of brass, copper and iron pipe 
should be carefully reamed to re- 
move the burr formed by cutting, 
and 45 degree bends or large 
radius 90 degree bends of recess 
pattern should be used to connect 
the heater and tank. Pipe of 
smaller diameter than 3^_inch 
should never be used to connect a 
waterback or heater to a storage 
tank, and the larger the pipe used 
within reasonable limits the better 
the circulation of Vv'ater. 

The usual method of connect- 
ing a heater to a hot water tank is 
shown in Fig. 132. The circula- 
tion pipe, a, from the bottom of the 
tank is connected to the bottom 
opening of the waterback, and the 
flow pipe, 6, grades from the top 
opening of the waterback up to the 
side connected to 



ry-, 






the boiler, about 
one-third distance 
from the bottom. 
The coldest water in 
a tank is always at the bottom and the 
hottest water at the top ready to be 
drawn through the hot water pipe. The 
temperature of the water grades uni- 
formly from the hottest water at the 
top to the coldest water at the bottom of 
the tank. The flow pipe, b, must always 
have a rise from the waterback to the boiler. If it should 
be trapped, the water will not heat, and a rattling, snapping 
sound will be heard when a fire is started, 




Fig. 132 

Waterback 
Connection 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 297 

A better way to connect the flow pipe from a waterback 
to a range boiler is shown by the dotted lines, c. In place 
of entering the side of the boiler, as in the ordinary method, 
the flow pipe is connected to a branch in the hot water sup- 
ply above the boiler. The efficiency of a heater depends 
upon the velocity of the circulating water, and the velocity 
depends upon the vertical height of the column of water, 
therefore with the flow pipe connected to the top of the 
boiler there would be a greater head, consequently a greater 
velocity than if the flow pipe entered the side of the boiler. 

Some plumbers object to the top connection on account 
of the possible loss of circulation in case the water is 
siphoned from the boiler to the level of the hole, /, in the 
cold water tube, or to the bottom of the cold water tube, d. 
The objection is not a good one, however, for as long as the 
waterback remains full of water no damage can result. 

If steam is generated it will either condense on the 
walls of the boiler or escape through the cold water pipe to 
the street mains. It is only when water is siphoned out of 
a boiler low enough to empty the waterback that it is dam- 
aged. Then, if the fire is continued in the range, the water- 
back becomes overheated, and is liable to crack if cold water 
is quickly turned into it. 

The top connection might be objectionable when a cir- 
culation pipe is carried back from the fixtures. In such a 
case the hot water from the waterback would circulate 
through the hot water supply pipe, not through the boiler. 

The cold water supply to a boiler usually enters the 
top and is conducted down through the hot water by a tube, 
d. If the tube were omitted cold water might short circuit 
from the cold water to the hot water pipe, as shown by the 
arrow, h, and cold water would then be drawn from the hot 
water faucet. If the cold water supply did not short circuit 
to the hot water pipe, it would mingle with the hot water at 
the top of the boiler, thus tending to cool it. The tube, d, 
should be tapped at / with a hole sufficiently large to admit 
air to break the siphon in case a vacuum is formed in the 
cold water supply pipe. The size of the hole should vary 



298 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

with the size of the tube, and should have a sectional area of 
at least one-quarter the sectional area of the tube. 

The cold water tube in a boiler should never extend 
below the level of where the flow pipe enters the side of the 
boiler. If water is siphoned from the boiler it cannot be 
emptied below the end of the cold water tube, and if the end 
of the tube is above the flow pipe from the waterback, it 
provides for circulation through the waterback when the 
flow pipe is connected to the side tapping in the boiler, and 
in any event it will ensure the waterback remaining full of 
water when the siphonage takes place. Boiler tubes for the 
cold water should be of brass or copper to prevent their 
rusting off or the vent tube choking with rust. 

Many plumbers now connect the flow pipe from the 
waterback to both the side and to the top of a boiler, as 
shown by the solid lines, h, and dotted lines, c. in the illus- 
tration. 

Safety Appll\nces. — The most serious result of water 
being siphoned from a boiler is the liability of the boiler 
collapsing from atmospheric pressure. To prevent this, a 
vacuum valve can be placed close to the boiler in a branch to 
the cold water pipe. The vacuum valve will admit air to 
the boiler in case a vacuum is formed, and thus prevent the 
boiler being emptied and then collapsed by external press- 
ure. A vacuum valve should be used whenever a boiler is 
located at such a height in a building that there is danger of 
the water being siphoned out when a cold water faucet is 
opened at a fixture below, after the water is shut off from 
the building. 

Another way of preventing the water being siphoned 
from a boiler is to place a check valve in the cold water pipe. 
This method, however, prevents the water expanding back 
into the street mains when the water is heated, and might 
cause the boiler to burst from internal pressure unless some 
relief is provided. Relief is generally provided under such 
conditions by means of a safety valve or expansion pipe. 

A safety valve, Fig. 133, consists of a valve that is 
held closed by means of a spring adjusted so that when the 
internal pressure reaches a certain intensity it will open 



Principles and Practice of Plunibinfj 



299 



the valve and hold it open until the pressure is reduced, so 
the spring can close the valve again. A safety valve should 
always be used in connection with a check valve w^hen the 
water is supplied from a street main. The outlet to the 
safety valve should be connected to a pipe leading to a sink, 
so that in case it blows off, the water will not be scattered 
over the kitchen, and scald anyone. 

Combined safetj^ and vacuum valves are sometimes 
used to provide safety against rupture from internal press- 
ure or collapsing from atmospheric pressure. 

An expansion pipe is used only with tank pressure. It 
consists of an extension of the hot water pipe up to and 
over the cold water supply tank, where 
it should return so as to discharge steam 
or water into the cold water tank. An 
expansion pipe also serves as a temper- 
ature regulator. 

A blow-off cock should be provided 
with every boiler to draw off water from 
it when necessary to empty the boiler. 
In practice it is quite usual to connect 
the blow-off pipe direct to the drainage 
system, either to the kitchen sink trap 
or to the waste pipe below the sink trap. 
This is bad practice. When a building 
is closed for any great period of time, the 
boiler is usually drained of water and the 
blow-off cock left open to carry off any 
drip from the pipes or boiler. That provides a direct com- 
munication between the house drainage system and the 
water supply system and possibly the living rooms. 

The best place to discharge the water from the blow- 
off of a boiler is in a trapped and water-supplied sink when 
there is one at a lower level than the boiler blow-off. When 
there is not, a compression hose bibb connected to a branch 
of the circulation pipe to the waterback will provide a 
means of emptying the boiler through a hose or into pails. 
The blow-off cock should always be located at the lowest 
part of the water heating apparatus, so it can be completely 




Safety Valve 



300 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



drained of water. If the waterback is located on one floor 
and the boiler at a higher level, then the blow-off cock would 
have to be connected near the waterback. 

Double Heater Connections to Boilers. — Two or 
more heaters are sometimes connected to one boiler. For 

instance, a coal or gas heater 
is sometimes used to heat the 
water during summer months, 
and a steam coil used to heat 
the water during winter 
weather. Each connection 
would be made independently 
of the other under such cir- 
cumstances, and either means 
or both means could be used 
together to heat the water. 

The real test of the effi- 
ciency of a double heater con- 
nection to a boiler is the abilitA^ 
to heat with one or both heat- 
ers together. When two water- 
backs or heaters are connected 
to the one hot water tank, by 
joining the flow and return 
pipe from both circuits, great 
care must be taken to connect 
them in such a manner that the 
current from one circuit will 
not be stronger than the cur= 
rent to the other circuit, and 
thus short circuit the strong 
current and shut off the flow 
from the weak one. That is 
what usually happens when one heater is located at a lower 
level than the other heater, or if located at the same level 
but at a great distance. Also, it might happen if one circuit 
was made of smaller pipe than the other one, or for any 
other cause was subject to greater friction. 

The best wav to connect two or more heaters to one 




<3=i^ 



ti 



^ 



Fig. 134 
Two Heater Connections to Boiler 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



301 



$► 



^ 



0= 



-^ 



tank is to connect each one separately. If there are only 
two heaters they may be connected as shown in Fig. 134, or 
the flow connection can be reversed, so the flow pipe from 
the heater on the lower floor will 
enter the top of the boiler. This will 
not affect the circulation from either 
heater otherwise than to cause a loss 
of velocity in the upper circuit, due 
to loss of head. If more than two 
heaters are to be connected, special 
tappings should be provided in the 
tank for the extra flow and circula- 
tion pipes. 

When two heaters are located at 
different levels they are sometimes 
connected so the water will pass in 
circuit through both of the water- 
backs. This, however, is a poor 
method of connecting them. When a 
fire is burning in only one heater, a 
great amount of heat is lost by radia- 
tion in passing through the cold 
heater and extra circulation piping, 
and when there is a fire in both heat- 
ers the heat imparted to the water in 
the tank is less than if each heater 
was connected separately to the tank. 

Heater Connection to Boiler 
AT Lower Level. — Circulation can 
be secured and the water heated in a 
boiler that is located below the level 
of the waterback, as shown in Fig. 
135. When the boiler is so located, 
however, the circulation is sluggish pjg. 135 

at all times, and the weights of the heater connected to Boiler 
, . n , 111 at Lower Level 

two columns 01 water so nearly bal- 
ance each other that good circulation cannot always be de- 
pended upon. Better results will be obtained by suspend- 
ing the boiler in a horizontal position close to the cellar 




302 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

ceiling, and extending the top loop at least twice the height 
of the lower loop or portion of the circuit. Also make the 
top or horizontal portion of the upper loop two sizes larger 
than the flow and return pipes, and as long as possible. In 
connecting the waterback to the boiler under such condi- 
tions, the circulation pipe from the boiler to the waterback 
is taken from the bottom of the boiler, and the flow pipe 
from the waterback to the boiler is extended vertically from 
the waterback to a distance equal to the distance from the 
waterback to the bottom of the boiler. If greater vertical 
height can be given to flow pipe, the more positive will be 
the circulation. The circulation pipe returns from the high- 
est point to which it is carried and enters the top of the 
boiler. The hot water pipe is taken from the top of the 
circulation loop or a separate connection from boiler. 

Connections to Horizontal Boilers. — Boilers are 
sometimes placed in horizontal position when there is no 
floor space to set them vertically. The usual tapping for 
a vertical boiler may be used when set horizontally, but the 
better practice is to have special tappings. When a vertical 
boiler is placed horizontally and stock tappings used, a 
boiler tube should be placed in the hot water pipe and 
curved upward inside of the boiler so as to offer an outlet 
near the top of the boiler for the hot water. The side 
tapping of the boiler is turned down and used for the cir- 
culation opening to the waterback. The flow pipe from 
the waterback enters what would be the bottom tapping of 
the boiler and the cold water enters the cold water tapping 
without a tube. The only special tapping necessary for a 
horizontally placed boiler is on the top side, to provide a 
connection for the hot water pipe. 

Overheated Water. — As previously stated, the rela- 
tion between the boiling point of water (which also is the 
generating point of steam) and pressure is absolute. Un- 
der a given pressure water will boil and steam will generate 
at a certain temperature. Increase the pressure and the 
point at which the water will boil will also increase. Thus, 
at atmospheric pressure, water will boil at 212 degrees 
Fahrenheit, while if the pressure is increased to 50 pounds, 



Principles mid Practice of Plumbing 



303 



C^/G^ 



a common pressure for water in city mains, the boiling 
point of the water will be increased to 297 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

If water under pressure is raised to a temperature 
above 212 degrees Fahrenheit and then released to the 
atmosphere, part of the water will instantly flash into 
steam and continue 
to generate steam 
until the temperature 
of the water is re- 
duced below the boil- 
ing point at atmos- 
p h e r i c pressure. 
Thus, when water 
under pressure in a 
tank is raised to the 
boiling point at that 
pressure and a hot 
water faucet is open- 
ed, steam w^ill flow 
from the faucet with 
a sputtering sound 
caused by the mix- 
ture of water with 
the steam. This flow 
of steam will con- 
tinue until the tem- 
perature of the water 
in the tank has been 
lowered by the in- 
flowing cold water to 
below 212 degrees 
Fahrenheit. The hot water tank is not full of steam, as 
would appear to the person at the faucet, but the water is 
instantly converted into steam as soon as the pressure is 
released from the water at the faucet. The overheating of 
water in a tank can be prevented by the use of temperature 
regulators, which are made to control the supply of steam 
to steam coil, also to regulate the drafts to water heaters. 




Fig. 136 
Draft Regulator 



304 Principles and Practice of Plurnbing 

and by these means maintain a uniform temperature of 
water in a tank. 

Draft Regulators. — An apparatus used to regulate 
the drafts of a water heater is shown in Fig. 136. It con- 
sists of a chamber, a, enclosed in a casting, b, with an an- 
nular space between them for water to circulate through. 
The inner chamber is connected by means of a pipe, c, to a 
diaphragm in valve, d, which it fitted with a lever and chain, 
so that any movement of the lever will open or close the 
dampers. The regulator is attached to the flow pipe from 
a heater, as shown in the illustration. The operation of 
the apparatus is as follows: The inner chamber is partly 
filled with water through the plugged connection, e, and 
the plug screwed in to prevent the escape of water or steam. 
The water in the inner chamber is under atmospheric press- 
ure, which boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, while the water 
in the heater is under an additional pressure that prevents 
it boiling at the same temperature as that in the chamber ; 
hence, w^hen the temperature of the w^ater in the heater 
rises above 212 degrees Fahrenheit it will cause the water 
in the chamber to generate steam, which presses the water 
against the diaphragm of the valve, d, thereby depressing 
the lever and closing the dampers. The fire is at once 
checked and no steam can form in the hot water tank, as 
the boiling point for the corresponding pressure has not 
been reached. When the temperature of the water in the 
heater falls below 212 degrees Fahrenheit the steam in the 
chamber condenses and pressure is released from the dia- 
phragm, which immediately settles back into place, thus 
opening the dampers. 

Steam Coil Regulators. — A regulator used for con- 
trolling the supply of steam to heating coils in tanks is 
shown in Fig. 137. It is operated by means of the unequal 
expansion of two different metal bars, a, which when heated 
to a certain temperature by water in the tank, b, open a 
small valve, c, in a water supply pipe, thus admitting the 
water pressure to the diaphragm valve, d. The pressure of 
w^ater on the diaphragm closes the valve and thus cuts off 
the supply of steam froni the coil. As soon as the tempera- 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



305 



ture of water in the tank falls sufficiently, the metal bars 
contract, thus shutting off the supply of water from the 
diaphragm valve, which is opened by a spring and again 
admits steam to the coil. 

Circulation Pipes. — Hot water pipes that are extend- 
ed any great distance to a fixture or group of fixtures should 
be provided with a circulation pipe through which hot water 
can circulate and thus be close to the faucets at all times. 
If circulation pipes are not provided, the water in hot water 
pipes cools when not being constantly drawn, and much 
time is wasted emptying the pipes of cold water when hot 
water is wanted. The water annually wasted in this man- 
ner, in any building would 
more than pay for circulation 
pipes. 

When installing the hot 
water system, a return pipe of 
smaller diameter than the hot 
water pipe is carried from the 
highest point of the hot water 
riser back to the boiler, where 
it may be connected to a 
separate tapping in the boiler 
or it may be connected to the 
return pipe from boiler to 
waterback. A valve should 
be put in each return pipe in 
a position to correspond with 
the shut-off valve in a hot water pipe, and both should be 
opened or closed as the case may be. Should only the hot 
water valve be closed, water would back up through the 
circulation pipe, and should the return valve be closed there 
would be no circulation through the pipes. 

A hot-water pipe should rise from the boiler connection 
to the highest point in the system, then return to the bottom 
connection of the boiler or to where it is connected to the 
apparatus. If the hot-water pipe should dip below its 
grade, should be trapped, or pitch down instead of up, the 
system would not work, and there would be no circulation. 




Fig. 137 
Steam Coil Regulator 



306 Principles mid Practice of Plumbing 

The return pipe from the highest part of the circulation 
system may be trapped or dip below the level of the boiler, 
as, for instance, should it be necessary to carry the return 
to the boiler in the basement or cellar, and this will not 
interfere with the circulation of water. The hot-water 
pipe, however, must have a positive rise from the boiler to 
the highest point in the system. 

Gravity circulation cannot be maintained in long, low 
buildings without the aid of a circulating pump. If the 
length of the building is not too great, circulation can be 
maintained by rising direct from the boiler to the top of 
the building, along the ceiling of the top floor to the end of 
the run, down to supply the groups of fixtures, and back to 
the boiler along the cellar ceiling. 

Expansion of Pipes. — Water pipes expand or contract 
for every change of temperature to which they are sub- 
jected. To provide 

cL-T^ "" 1 buildings expansion 

vj |^ _____r[ _l loops are placed in 

^ — -~'^~~^Z^ '-' — both hot water and 

L=$^ ' circulation pipe to 

X permit the expan- 

Fig. 138 ^. , 

J Expansion Loop sion and Contrac- 

tion of the lines 
Avithout injuiy to the pipes. The loops are usually from 
6 to 8 feet long, made as shown in Fig. 138, placed under 
floors and spaced about 50 feet apart. Usually hot water 
and circulation pipes are fastened midway between loops 
and allowed to expand both up and down. Long horizontal 
runs should likewise have expansion loops or room to ex- 
pand. The length that water pipes will expand depends 
upon the degree to which they are heated and the material 
of the pipes. Within ordinary ranges of temperature, cast 
iron pipe varies ^^^^^^ of its length for each degree Fahren- 
heit, heated or cooled. Wrought iron pipe varies ^ 



R 



150 

of its length for each degree Fahrenheit heated or cooled, 
and brass pipe varies ^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^ of its length for each degree 
Fahrenheit heated or cooled. Hence the expansion or con- 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



sol 



traction of any pipe, when the length and the temperature 
of water are known, can be found by the following rule : 

Rule — Multiply the length of pipe in inches by the num- 
ber of degrees Fahrenheit it is heated or cooled, and divide 
the product by the coefficient of expansion for the kind of 
pipe used. 

Expressed as a formula: 



ih 



When 1 =r: length of pipe in inclies, h r= degrees Fahr. the pipe is 



heated or cooled, c = coefficient ot expansion ( cast iron, 

162000 ISOOOO 

wrought iron and hrass), e = elongation of pipe in inches. 

Example — What will be the expansion of a wTought iron pipe 100 feet 
long when heated from 60 to 212 degrees temperature? 

Solution— 100 ft. X 12 in. X 152 = 182400 -f- 150000 = 1.21 inches. 

In Tables LXXXIII, LXXXIV and LXXXV the linear 
expansion of cast iron, wrought iron and brass pipe for each 
100 feet length at different temperatures is given. 

TABLE LXXXIII. Expansion of Cast Iron Pipe 



Tempera- 


Length 

of Pipe 

when 

Fitted 


Length of Pipe when heated to 


ture of Air 

when Pipe 

is Fitted 


215 Deg. Fahr. 

Atmospheric 

Pressure 


265 Deg. Fahr. 

15 Pounds 

Pressure 


297 Deg. Fahr. 

84 Pounds 

Pressure 


338 Deg. Fahr. 

100 Pounds 

Pressure 


Deo;. Fahr. 

32 
64 


Feet 
100 
100 
100 


Feet Inches 
100 1 . 59 
100 1 . 36 
100 1 . 12 


Feet Inches 
100 1.96 
100 1 . 65 
100 1.43 


Feet Inches 
100 2.20 
100 1.96 
100 1 . 73 


Feet Inches 
100 2.50 
100 2.27 
100 2.00 



TABLE LXXXIV. Expansion of Wrought Pipe 



Tempera- 


Length 

of Pipe 

when 

Fitted 


Length of Pipe when heated to 


ture of Air 

when Pipe 

is Fitted 


215 Deg. Fahr. 

Atmospheric 

Pressure 


265 Deg. Fahr. 

15 Pounds 

Pressure 


297 Deg. Fahr. 

84 Pounds 

Pressure 


338 Deg. Fahr. 

100 Pounds 

Pressure 


Deg. Fahr. 

32 
64 


Feet 
100 
100 
100 


Feet Inches 
100 1 . 72 
100 1 . 47 
100 1.21 


Feet Inches 
100 2.21 
100 1 . 78 
110 1.68 


Feet Inches 
100 2.31 
100 2.12 
100 1 . 87 


Feet Inches 
100 2.70 
100 2.45 
100 2.19 



308 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



Pipe Coverings. — Hot water pipes and hot water tanks 
that are uncovered lose by radiation from their surface 
about 13 B. T. U. per minute per square foot of surface. 

TABLE LXXXV. Expansion of Brass Pipe 



Tempera- 


Length 

of Pipe 

when 

Fitted 




Length of Pipe when heated to 




ture of Air 

when Pipe 

is Fitted 


215 Deg. Fahr. 

Atmospheric 

Pressure 


265 Deg. Fahr. 

15 Pounds 

Pressure 


297 Deg. Fatir. 

84 Pounds 

Pressure 


338 Deg. Fahr . 

100 Pounds 

Pressure 


Deg. Fahr. 

32 
64 


Feet 
100 
100 

100 


Feet Inches 
100 2.58 
100 2.19 
100 1.81 


Feet Inches 
100 3.18 
100 2.79 
100 2.41 


Feet Inches 
100 3.56 

100 3.18 
100 2.79 


Feet Inches 
100 4.05 
100 3.67 

100 3.28 



To prevent this loss of heat and consequent extra consump- 
tion of coal, hot water pipes, circulation pipes, and hot water 
tanks in large installations are usually covered with some 
non-heat conducting substance. 

TABLE LXXXVL Values of Pipe Coverings 



Name 


Maker 


B. T. U. loss per 
sq. ft. pipe sur- 
face per minute. 


Per cent, or ratio 
of loss to loss from 
bare pipe. 


Thickness in in- 
ches. 


Weight in ounces 
per ft. of length, 
4 in. diameter. 


Xonpareil Cork Standard 
Xonpareil Cork Octagonal 
Mam-ille High Pressure . . 
]Magnesia 


Xonpareil Cork Co 

Xonpareil Cork Co 

Manville Covering Co. . . 
Keasbv & ]\Iattison Co... 

H. F. Watson 

H. F. Watson 

Asbestos Paper Co 

^Nlan^ille Covering Co.. . . 
Mam-iUe Covering Co... . 

Man^dlle Covering Co.. . . 

Keasbv & ^Nlattison Co.. 

H. F. Watson 

Asbestos Paper Co 

Philip CarevCo 


2.20 
2.38 
2.38 
2.45 
2.49 
2.62 
2.77 
2.80 
2.87 

2.88 
2.91 
3.00 
3.33 
3.61 
13.84 


15.9 
17.2 
17.2 
17.7 
18.0 
18.9 
20.0 
20.2 
20.7 

20.8 
21.0 
21.7 
24.1 
26.1 
100.0 


1.00 
.80 
1.25 
1.12 
1.12 
1.12 
1.12 
1.50 
1.25 

1.50 
1.12 
1.12 
1.12 
1.12 


27 
16 
54 
35 


Imperial Asbestos 

•W.B." 

-\5bestos Air Cell 

Mamille Infusorial Earth. 
ManMille Low Pressure.. . 
INIamille Magnesia 

Asbestos 

Magnabestos 

Moulded .Sectional 

Asbestos Fire Board 

Calcite 

Bare Pipe 


45 
59 
35 

65 
48 
41 
35 
66 











Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



309 



The relative values of different makes of pipe cover- 
ings, as determined by tests conducted by Charles L. Nor- 
ton, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for the 
Mutual Boiler Insurance Co., of Boston, can be found in 
Table LXXXVI. 

Carbonate of magnesia is a very poor conductor of 
heat, therefore, it is a good material for covering hot water 
pipes. The name ''Magnesia," however, is often applied 
to pipe coverings made of carbonate of lime, or of plaster 
of paris. Table LXXXVII shows the percentage of lime 
and magnesia found by C. L. Norton in several well-known 
brands of ''Magnesia" coverings. 

TABLE LXXXVII. Lime and Magnesia in Pipe Coverings 





Percentage Composition 


Name 


Mg. CO3 

Carbonate 

of Magnesia 


Ca. SO4 

Sulphate 

of Calcium 


K. & M. Magnesia 

Manville H. P. Lining 

Watson Moulded 


80 to 90 
Less than 5 
20 to 25 
Less than 5 
10 to 15 


3 

65 to 75 
50 to 60 


Carey Calcite 


75 


Manville Magnesia Asbestos 


None 







Data on pipe covering from Circular No. 6 of the Mutual Boiler Insurance 
Company, of Boston. 

Mineral wool, which was always considered a good 
covering, was not reported upon by the above experimenter, 
for the reason that mineral wool is of no value as a heat 
retardant. 

''Under vibration it is apt to become more and more 
massed into a semi-solid, leaving the top of a pipe partially 
covered, the under side of the covering more and more solid 
and therefore less effective. It is a dangerous material to 
handle and to use. The fine dust getting under the nails 
creates irritation and sometimes bad sores, or, passing into 
the bronchial tubes and the lungs, sometimes causes hemor- 
rhage." 

The conclusions to which we have been led by the tests 
on which report is now made, are as follows: 



310 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



There are a sufficient number of safe, suitable and 
incombustible coverings for steam pipes and boilers to main- 
tain a reasonable and adequate competition, without giving 
regard to any of the composite pipe coverings which contain 
combustible material in greater or less quantity, according 
to the integrity* of the makers, and without gi\'ing regard to 
pipe coverings which contain substances like the sulphate of 
lime, which may cause the dangerous corrosion of the metal 
against which it is placed. We therefore name as the pipe 
and boDer coverings which may have the preference in 
respect to safety from lire and efficiency in service, the 
following makes : 



Niire Made hy 


>" 


" ': i'-:i Cork ^ " - ireil Lork Co_ Bridgeport. Conn. 

- - -:a . V ^ - . & \IaLti=<jn Cn Ambler. Pa. 


- Air Cell ^ Asirstos Pap^r Co- B<:>5ton. 

Asbestos ' H. F. Watsr.n Co„ Erie, Pa 



Hair felt and wool felt when new are good heat retard- 
ants, but deteriorate with age. and besides furnish a breed- 
ing place for house bugs and vermin. 

The value of pipe coverings is not proportional to its 
thickness. Sectional pipe coverings average about 1% 
inches in thickness and reduce the loss by radiation about 

90 per cent, doubling ./'As^/b .^^^/7<?^/b 

the thickness of pipe 
covering only saves 
about another 5 per 
cent, of heat loss. In 
specifj-ing covering for 
pipes and boilers, there- 
fore, a thickness of l-^g 
inches will be sufficient. 
Covering for 
T.AJNKS. — On account of the objectionable appearance they 
would present, range boilers are seldom covered to prevent 
loss of heat by radiation. Hot water tanks, however, are 
usuallv located in the basement or cellar, where appearance 




Fig. 1.3& 
Corerine for Hot "Water Tank 



Principles and Practice of Plitmbing 311 

is of less importance than the prevention of loss of heat, 
therefore they should be covered with about 1% inches of 
some good non-heat conducting covering. Tanks are gen- 
erally covered with plastic asbestos troweled over a band of 
expanded metal, or asbestos blocks, Fig. 139, held in place by 
a wire netting. 



312 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XXIX 
ICE-WATER SUPPLY 



Cooling Tanks. — The cooling of water for drinking 
purposes begins at the cooling tanks, which must be rightly 
proportioned and properly built if the best and most eco- 
nomical results are to be obtained. Cooling tanks are noth- 
ing more or less than ordinary ice boxes, and any well-made 
ice chest can be used for the purpose, although on account 
of the hard usage received, it is well to have cooling tanks 
made of extra strength. 

Tightness and heat insulation are the two prime requi- 
sites of the ice box. The box may be made water-tight by 
lining it wuth sheet metal of some kind, or by placing inside 
of the ice chest a specially built galvanized steel tank. So 
far as efficiency is concerned, either will answer, although 
the steel tank will wear the better. 

The ice chest must be well insulated with from four to 
six inches of charcoal, granulated cork or some equally good 
non-heat conducting substance, and fitted with good covers, 
either single or double. 

Where only one drinking fountain is to be installed, or 
where the fountains are widely scattered, individual ice 
boxes for each fountain will prove the most satisfactory and 
economical. When, however, there are a number of drink- 
ing fountains grouped fairly close together, one ice box cen- 
trally located will be found the most satisfactory. 

An ice box suitable for this purpose is shown in 
Fig. 140. It will be noted that the ice in this box rests on 
a perforated platform above the ice coils. This prevents 
the coils from being damaged when putting ice in the chest, 
and, as the ice does not come in contact with the coils, neces- 
sitates retaining water in the tank. This is far from being 
a disadvantage, however, for the water from melted ice is 
cold enough to cool the drinking water to the right degree, 
and will absorb enough heat from the drinking water to 
make it economically advisable to use the water for cooling 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



313 



purposes. For instance, the following data about water in 
an ice cooler of this description will prove the point: 

Temperature of water at surface in contact with ice 41° F. 

Temperature of water at bottom of ice box 43° F. 

Temperature of water drawn at basement fountain 53° F. 

Temperature of water drawn at first floor fountain 53° F. 

Temperature of water drawn at second floor fountain 53° F. 

Temperature of water drawn at third floor fountain 53° F. 

Accepting the average temperature of the water in the 
ice chest as 42 degrees Fahrenheit, then it is only about ten 
degrees warmer than the temperature of the ice, and that 
ten degrees heat, or the greater portion of it no doubt, was 
absorbed from the drinking water passing through the coils. 

The waste and overflow connections are so arranged 
that water can be retained in the ice box up to the level of 
the overflow, and the water then overflowing is from the 
bottom of the ice box, where the warmest water will be 
found, or, by 
opening the 
valve in the 
waste pipe, 
the water will 
drain ou t as 
fast as the ice 
melts. 

In p r 0- 
portioningthe 
ice box, about 
three cubic 
feet of space 
should be al- 
lowed for 
each drinking 
fountain to be 

served. Indeed, it w^ould be well to allow slightly more 
space to take care of the ice needed in extremely hot 
weather, then the cooling of water can be regulated in ordi- 
nary weather by not using so much ice. The amount of ice 
required will of course depend upon the weather. Ordinar- 







Fig. 140 
Cooling Tank for Ice Water Supply 



314 Principles and Practice of Plmnbing 

ily, 50 pounds of ice per day for each fountain will be found 
sufficient, although in excessively hot weather it might 
require over three times that amount. 

Cooling Coils. — In the foregoing illustration, the pipe 
coil is shown occupying the main part of the tank. This is 
not necessary, however, and other methods are often 
resorted to. For instance, a flat coil may be laid on the 
bottom of the ice tank, or wall coils, may be run around the 
sides of the tank thereby keeping them out of the way of the 
ice, so they will not be damaged when putting the ice in the 
box, and at the same time permitting a smaller size of tank 
to be used. 

When a bottom coil is used, it is well to fasten over the 
coil a rack or grating of heavy timbers, say 21/2 x 5, to keep 
the ice from coming in contact with the coils and possibly 
damaging them. 

Size and Material of Cooling Coils. — For ordinary 
service, 10 feet of %-inch pipe will be a sufficient allowance 
for each drinking fountain supplied. That would be the 
equivalent of about 214 square feet of surface, the inside 
surface of the pipe being taken, as that is the surface to 
which heat is applied; fourteen feet of i/2-i^^h pipe; eight 
feet of 1-inch pipe; 614 lineal feet of li/4-inch pipe, or 51/2 
feet of 11/2-inch pipe. 

Water stands in the cooling coils sometimes for a long 
while, so it is undesirable to use lead pipe or common iron 
pipe for this purpose. Brass pipe, copper pipe, block-tin 
pipe or Benedict Nickel Steel pipe will be found best for this 
purpose. 

Distribution of Ice-Water. — Cold water cannot be 
satisfactorily circulated without the aid of a pump. The 
attempt has been made to secure a circulation by gravity, by 
locating the ice box in the attic, and depending on the heat- 
ing of the water in the down supply upsetting the balance 
of the two columns of water enough to cause an up circula- 
tion in the return pipe. The difference in temperature is so 
slight, however, and the friction of the pipe proportionally 
so great, that it will not circulate. Even if it did, there are 
practical objections to such a system of ice-water supply. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



315 



In the first place, there is the muss and fuss of carrying the 
ice to the attic, and in the second place, the attic being the 
hottest part of the building, and so much hotter than the 
cellar where it would naturally be located, that much more 
ice would have to be used to keep the water at the required 
temperature. 

Water Cooler for Out-Door Fountain. — For fac- 
tories spread over large areas, parks, public playgrounds 
and like places, a sanitary drinking fountain supplied with 
cooled water 
can be fitted 
up as shown 
in Fig. 141. 
Expe r i e n c e 
has shown 
that a brick 
o r concrete 
vault 2 feet 
wide, 21/2 feet 
long and 31/2 
feet deep, 
containing a 
little over 17 
cubic feet of 
space, and 
capable of 
holding from 
700 to 800 
pounds of ice, 
will keep the 
water cool for 
24 hours and in sufficient quantity to supply 3000 people. 

About 9 square feet of coil surface, or 21 lineal feet of 
li/^-inch pipe will be found sufficient for ordinary locations; 
but, where the flow is almost continuous, 14 to 15 square 
feet of pipe surface will be needed to keep the water cooled 
to the right temperature. 

Water-Cooling Refrigerating Machines. — Mechani- 
cal refrigeration is now generally used for cooling the drink- 




—,Was/e P.pe 



Fig. 141 
Water Cooler for Outdoor Fountain 



316 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



ing water for large office buildings, hotels, clubs and like 
buildings. This requires a miniature plant of its own, or 
an expansion or brine coil from the general system, when 
refrigeration for other purposes is required in the building. 




■'1' 



o 

n 

6X) S 



The complete refrigerating system for a water-cooling 
plant is shown in Fig. 142. This was designed with a 
capacity of from twenty-five to thirty drinking fountains, 
and is operated by an electric motor. In supplying ice 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 317 

water to a building a pump is necessary to keep up a circu- 
lation through the supply pipes, so that cold water will be 
on tap the moment a faucet is opened. If the water were 
not kept in circulation, it w^ould soon grow warm, and con- 
siderable water would have to be drawn before cold water 
could be obtained. From the circulating pump the risers 
are taken to the attic, or 10 or 12 feet above the level of the 
highest fixture, if there are none on the top floor, then 
returned and discharged into the cooling tank. In some 
cases a small tank called a ''balancing tank" is provided in 
the attic, and the water from the risers discharge into this, 
the overflow being carried back to the cooling tank in the 
cellar or basement. Supply branches to the drinking foun- 
tains are taken off the up-risers, so there will always be a 
supply available, and under a suitable head or pressure. 

It is very necessary to insulate thoroughly the ice-water 
pipes or they will condense the moisture in the atmosphere, 
thereby ''sweating" and being a nuisance generally. 

In proportioning the system, an allowance of about 3 
gallons capacity in the cold water tank for each fountain to 
be supplied, will be right for ordinary service. 

Actual Performance of Refrigerating Machine. — 
In the 30-story Union Central Office Building, Cincinnati, 
Ohio, a 10-ton Frick machine furnishes the tenants with ice 
water. Steam pressure 80 pounds; back-pressure on con- 
denser 15 pounds, and condenser pressure 150 pounds. City 
water is taken in at a temperature of 75 degrees Fahrenheit 
and cooled to an average of 44 degrees at the fountains 
throughout the building, of which there are 50 between the 
basement and the twenty-eighth floor. There were 468 
pounds of steam used by the ice machine per hour, or 3,744 
during the eight-hour test, which required 430 pounds of 
coal, . ^'■'' 



118 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XXX 
WATER SUPPLY FOR SUBURBAN PLACES 



Windmills. — One of the cheapest and most satisfac- 
iory ways of pumping water for domestic or irrigation pur- 
poses is by means of windmills. There are two types of 
windmills in use, distinguished by the materials used in 
making the sails of the wind wheel. One is the windmill 
with the sails of the windwheel made of narrow strips of 
wood set at a steep angle. Such windmills run at slow 
speed and operate the pump direct from the crank, and are 
called "direct-stroke"' windmills. The other type has curved 
steel sails set at a flat angle in the windwheel. These 
wheels revolve at high speed, and the high speed of the 
windwheel is geared down to the proper speed for operating 
the pump. These windmills are known as "•back-geared" 
windmills. Both types of windmills have certain features 
adapting them to different requirements. 

Action of Wind on W^indmills. — It requires at least 
an 8-mile wind to do any effective work with a windmill, 
and they will not operate to the best advantage in winds of 
over 25 miles an hour. Very few windmills are made with 
larger wheels than 30 feet in diameter, and they are regu- 
lated to govern at a velocity of 2-5 miles an hour. There 
are no pumps or attachments which will enable the user of 
a windmill to utilize the increased power obtained from 
winds of high velocity, so that in practice the amount of 
water pumped by windmills in high winds is but little more 
than is pumped by the same mills in winds having velocities 
of from 12 to 18 miles an hour. The velocity of wind. 
pressure per square foot on the §ails and action of the wind 
on a windmill, can be seen in Table LXXXVIII. 

From the table it will be seen that the only available 
winds are those blowing with a velocity of from 8 to 25 
miles per hour, and that a 15-mile wind can be utilized to 
the best advantage. It is best, therefore, to "load" a wind- 
mill for a 15-mile wind. It will then start pumping in an 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



319 



8-mile wind, do excellent work in a 15-mile wind, and reach 
the maximum results in a 25-mile wind. It will be further 
observed that a wind velocity of 15 miles per hour develops 
a power three times as great as an 8-mile wind; and a 
20-mile wind is twice as powerful as a 15-mile, or six times 
that of an 8-mile wind. It naturally follows that a small 
increase in velocity greatly increases the power of wind- 
mills, while a low velocity gives but a low working force. 



TABLE LXXXVIIL Action of Wind on Windmills 


\'elocity of 

Wind in 

Miles per 

Hour 


Pressure 

per Square 

P'oot in 

Pounds 


Description 
of Wind 


Action of Wind 
on Windmill 


3 

5 

8 

10 

15 

20 
25 
30 


.045 
. 125 
.33 
.5 

1.125 
2. 

3^125 
4.5 
8. 
12.5 

18. 

32. 

50. 


Just perceptible 

Pleasant wind 

Fresh breeze 

Average wind 

Good wor Icing wind . . 

Strong wind 

Very strong wind . . 
Gale 


Windmill will not run 
Might start if lightly loaded 
Will start pump 
Pumps nicely if properly 

loaded 
Does excellent work 
Gives best service 
Maximimi results secured 
Should be furled out of work 


40 


Storm 


[ Well constructed mills and 


50 

60 

80 

100 


Severe Storm 

Violent Storm 

Hurricane 

Tornado 


j towers are safe if properly 
[ erected 
Buildings, trees, etc., might be 

damaged 
Buildings, trees, etc., would ))e 

damaged 
Ruin 



The capacities of windmills based on the size of wheel, 
velocity of wind, and revolutions of wheel per minute, can 
be found in Table LXXXIX. This table gives also the 
amount of water that can be raised to diiferent heights or 
elevations. 

Average Velocity of Wind. — Windmills would be of 
but little use if there was not enough wind blowing to oper- 
ate them. As a matter of fact, at some time during every 
twenty-four hours, there is enough wind blowing to operate 
a windmill and pump water. The average velocity of wind 
throughout the entire United States is very nearly 8 miles 
per hour, while for large areas, such as the great plains 
east of the Rocky Mountains, the average is about 11 miles 



320 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



per hour. Again, in certain small areas situated in moun- 
tainous districts, the average velocity is as low as 5 miles 
per hour; therefore, in selecting and loading a windmill, 
the wind velocity prevailing in the particular locality where 
it will be used must be considered. In such localities the 
mills should be loaded to operate in 10-mile winds, instead 
of 15-mile wind recommended for general use. A mill 
loaded for a 10-mile w^ind can be depended upon to furnish 
a sufficient supply of water in those localities where the 
average wind velocity is low. 



TABLE LXXXIX. Capacity of Windmills 



Xi 

o 

^ O 


P 




Gallons of Water Raised per 
Minute to an Elevation of 


v^alent to 
il Useful 
jpower. 






25 
Feet 


50 
Feet 


75 
Feet 


100 
Feet 


150 
Feet 


200 
Feet 


■3 = £ 


81/; 


16 


40 to 50 


6.192 


3.016 










0.04 


10 


16 


35 to 40 


19.179 


9.563 


6.638 


4.750 






0.12 


12 


16 


30 to 35 


33.941 


17.952 


11.851 


8.435 


5.680 




0.21 


14 


16 


28 to 35 


45.139 


22.569 


15.304 


11.246 


7.807 


4.998 


0.28 


16 


16 


25 to 30 


64.600 


31.654 


19.540 


16.150 


9.771 


8.075 


0.41 


18 


16 


22 to 25 


97.682 


52.165 


32.513 


24.421 


17.485 


12.211 


0.61 


20 


16 


20 to 22 


124.950 


63.750 


40.800 


31.248 


19.284 


15.938 


0.78 


25 


16 


16 to 18 


212.381 


106.964 


71.604 


49.725 


37.349 


26.741 


1.34 



Pumping windmills have their windwheels designed 
and proportioned for the speed at which the pump can be 
properly operated. Pumps in wells up to 100 feet deep are 
operated at about 35 or 40 strokes per minute. Pumps in 
wells from 100 to 200 feet deep are operated at from 25 to 
30 strokes per minute; and in wells from 200 to 400 feet 
deep, the pumps should not be operated faster than 15 to 
20 strokes per minute. Pumps for deep wells must be set 
directly over the well. If a suction pump is to be used, on 
the other hand, it can be set at any convenient point so long 
as it is not too far above the level of the water supply. 

Wooden Storage Tanks. — Cylindrical wooden tanks 
for the storage of water should be made of white cedar, 
cypress, white or red pine, Douglas or Washington fir, or 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 321 

air-dried redwood. The lumber must be free from sap, 
loose or unsound knots, worm holes and shakes, and be thor- 
oughly air-dried. Tanks of the best white cedar and those 
of good cypress are about equally durable. They will last 
at least 15 years, and commonly from 20 to 25 years. The 
following specifications for storage tanks, abstracted from 
the requirements of the fire underwriters, gives the best 
practice in tank design. The staves and bottoms for tanks 
not exceeding in diameter 16 feet, nor more than 16 feet 
deep, must be made of 21/2-inch stock dressed on both sides 
to a thickness of 2l^ inches. For larger tanks 3-inch stock 
dressed on both sides to 2% inches must be used, and for 
tanks smaller than 16 feet, 2-inch stock may be used. 

The hoops must be round in cross section. 

The strength of a tank depends chiefly on its hoops. 
Experience shows that flat hoops, especially those of steel, 
rust from the back side where they bear against the staves, 
and serious accidents have happened by hoops bursting on 
account of this unobserved corrosion. Sometimes galvaniz- 
ing or painting is depended upon to prevent rusting, but 
there is always the possibility that spots of the protective 
coating will be knocked oflf in handling, and one spot left 
unprotected may result in the failure of the hoop. Round 
hoops are, therefore, advised for all tanks, since for a given 
cross section of metal, these hoops have the advantage of 
presenting the least surface to corrosion. Nearly the whole 
surface can, moreover, be examined or painted while the 
hoops are in place. In setting up a tank with round hoops 
there is little probability of tightening the hoops to such an 
extent that when the tank swells the hoops will burst; for 
the round hoops will simply indent the wood more as the 
tank swells and the stress in the hoops is not likely to be 
increased to the breaking point if reasonable care is used. 

The hoops must be made of wrought iron or mild steel 
of good quality. Wrought iron is preferable, however, 
because it is more rust resisting. The wrought iron must 
have a tensile strength of at least 50,000 pounds per square 
inch. Steel must have a tensile strength not less than 
55,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch and the percentage 



322 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



of carbon must not exceed 0.10. There must be no welds 
in the hoops. Where more than one length of iron is neces- 
sary, lugs similar to Fig. 143 must be used to make the con- 
nection. Cast iron lugs not malleableized are not accept- 
able, as they are liable to crack. 

Hoops with "upset" ends are not allowed because : first 

the metal is likely to be 
burned in upsetting un- 
less done under careful 
supervision; and, second, 
the additional diameter 
is likely to be gained by 
welding bolt ends to 
smaller rods, thus intro- 
ducing a weak place in 
the weld. 

When the screw threads are cut directly on the end of a 
hoop, the unthreaded portion may be corroded to a depth 
equal to the depth of the threads without weakening the 
hoop. The screw thread itself is not so liable to serious 
corrosion as the portion of the hoop which bears against the 
staves, since the latter is subjected to moisture from the 
wood. 




Fig. 143 
Lug for Hoops 



TABLE XC. Strength of Wooden Tank Hoops 



Diameter of 

Round Rod 

in Inches 


Area of Section 

of Rod in Square 

Inches 


Net Area at 
Root of Thread 
in Square Inches 


Safe Working 
Load in 
Pounds 


Vs 
1 


.44 
.60 
.79 
.99 


.30 
.42 
.55 
.69 


3,750 
5,250 

6,;875 
8,625 



The hoops must be of such size and spacing that the 
stress will not exceed 12,500 pounds per square inch when 
computed from area at root of thread. Hoops must not be 
less than % inch diameter. Table XC gives proper work- 
ing strength for hoops of sizes commonly used, based on this 
allowable stress. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



323 



The top hoop must be placed within two inches of the 
top of staves. No space between hoops to exceed 21 inches. 
The hoops must be so placed that lugs will not come in a 
vertical line. The spacing of hoops can be found from the 
following diagram, Fig. 144. 

The following example will best show^ the use of the 



= == = :;; SI 

E= ±-- : 
EE:Epi Ho 


ITTiTillTITI 

Area ot Area at 
:® Section Root of 

ofKod Thread 
°P sq. in. sq. in. 


Safe Load 
111 


-- — 


=^ 


=^!^= 






H 


^ 




^^ 




y 






' y' 




eeeeee; 3^ 

^^^--: i' 


" -44 .30 
" .60 .42 

' „ -79 -55 
8 -99 '^ 


3750 
5250 

S625 


r" 






^ 


^ 




-y 


t^ 


Ir 




1?'^=- 






















._ ^ _j_ . 







— 




'^ 




l-y^ — 






is±; s 


afe Load Is computed at 12,500 
unds per sq. In. on area at root 
thread. 




^ 


^ 


^ 




^ 




H 




111 hi po 

3: 'J:: Of 


— 


^ 


^ 




^ 


— 1 




=7^ 




— 










~ 






^ 







A- 




/ 




















































/ 






/ 






y 






y 












































































/ 






/ 






/ 




















/ 






/ 






/ 




















/ 












7 
















- h^ 






y 






y 








/ 




i *" 






7l 












y 


















/ 






/ 








/ 






y 












7 






7 






/ 








y 








L 


/ 






7 






y 








/ 








^X 






y 














y 










^O^X" 






y 






y 








/ 










- ^/^ 














/ 








/ 










_!--+. \<>V 


1 




/ 






> 








J 












<•*/ 




■H'' 








^ 








y 












i< 










/ 










/ 


















• 










/ 














/ '^VL 




-oV 










/ 














--^- -/- 






^ 


X 








y 
















_7_ Z 




^^ 


^'z 










/ 
















i - ,^ 




/ 






rf> 


y 
















1 ,i 


* 7 




/ 






,< 


^.H 


' 
















? 

^i; __ 


"\V/"_ 


/ 






1 


-><^\ 


y 


















-1 y 


/ J 


7 






•^\^/ 




















" ■? 


/ / 








\/ 


7 




















,.± 


7 -y 








/ 






















7 
,^_ 


_ ^/ 






/ 
























? 

/ 


7 




7 


























'' 


7 


/ 




























......../. 


' 7 
/ 






























l ._ _ 


/ 
































^ _ _ J, - 

t 
































7 

7. 






























7 

































































































































900 
800 

700 
600 

500 
400 

300 
250 



200 



350 



100 

90 
80 
70 

60 



•-oo>oor*<oio>*c»»M^ o o> 00 r» (O 



Fig. 144 
Showing Allowable Spacing for Hoop^ 



324 



Pi-inciples and Practice of Plumbing 



die. 2 
15 ; 



TJ 



A- far apart should l-inch hoops be placed, at 
he top, on a tank 20 feet diameter? 
15 - ^300. Follow up the right side of the dia- 
gram where marked "Product of diameter (feet) X depth 
(feet)" till you come to 300; then follow the horizontal line 
to the left till it intersects the diagonal line marked "1-inch 
Hoop ;" then follow downward to the bottom of the diagram, 
and it will be seen that the hoops under conditions above 
stated may be spaced 8% inches apart. 



■M 

•J 



c ^^ 



i5^ 



o 






H 






rt 
ys 



o 

o 

CS 

> 



\ i 



.^•^ 



<o 




2. 



u 






•*-- 



^11 o 



X's 



*^ 



I 






o V, f 



CI - 
— ,-j- 

I 



5 - oc p S X d 2 






Fig. 145 
Proper Spacing^ of Hoops 

In a similar way the spacing for any hoop for any size 
tank may be found. 

Extra hoops must be provided near the bottom to take 
the additional load due to the swelling of the bottom planks. 
For tanks up to 20 feet in diameter, one hoop of the siz^ 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



S25 



used next above it must be placed around the bottom oppo- 
site the croze. For tanks 20 feet or more in diameter two 
hoops must be used as above. 

The hoop or hoops at the croze are to be counted upon 
as taking the water pressure of half the space above. 

The spacing of hoops on tanks is shown graphically for 
several different sizes of tanks in Fig. 145. 

Dimensions for Tanks of Standard Sizes. — For con- 
venience Table XCI, giving dimensions for a few tanks of 
certain sizes, is added. 



r 


TABLE XCI. Dimensions of Wooden 


Tanfc 


:s 






SIZE 

(Outside 
Dimensions) 


Thickness of 

Lumber 
after being 
Machined 


B m 


,...c 




Approx. 


>^$^/< 


HOOPS 


Capacity 


* 1 






Average 
Diam. 
Ft.-In. 


Length 

of Stave 

Ft. 


Staves 
In. 


Bot'm 
In. 


No. 
of 




Gals. 


A 
In. 


B 

In. 


c 

In. 


Size 
In. 


10,000 


13-4 


12 


2M 


2M 


3^ 


H 


23^ 


11 


% 


15,000 


14-6 


14 


2M 


2M 


33^ 


% 


2^ 


14 


% 


20,000 


15-G 


16 


2^ 


23^ 


3M 


Ys 


2>^ 


/ 5 
\11 




25,000 


17-G 


16 


2% 


2^ 


W2 


% 


2^ 


{^t 




30,000 


18-0 


18 


2^ 


m 


3M 


M 


2^ 


{^t 




40,000 


19-6 


20 


2% 


2% 


3M 


Va 


2^ 


I 3 
10 

111 


1 


50,000 


22-0 


20 


2% 


2% 


3M 


M 


2^ 


/ 4 
\19 


1 



The number and size of hoops are stated and the spac- 
ing for same are shown in Fig. 145. The proper size and 
spacing of hoops for tanks of other dimensions can readily 
be computed by use of the diagram. 

Tanks located outdoors must be covered with a double 
roof, an acceptable construction being shown in plan in 
Fig. 146, and in elevation in Fig. 147. It must consist of a 
tight flat cover made of matched boards supported by joists, 



326 



Principles and Practice of Phnnhing 



and above this a conical roof. In the larger sizes the conical 
roof must be supported by rafters extending from the top of 
the tank to the peak of the roof. 

The conical roof must be covered with galvanized sheet 
iron or a good composition roofing which is not readily 
ignitible. 




Fig. 146 
Plan of Tank Boof 



Expansion Joint. — When a tank is supported by a 
tower 30 feet or more in height, whether on the ground or 
on a building, an expansion joint of the approved t>T)e 
shown in Fig. 148 must be provided in the discharge pipe at 




Fig. 14T 
Double Cover for Tank 



the tank connection. In those cases where a tank is located 
in a brick or reinforced concrete tower, a four-elbow swing 
joint may be used. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



327 



Overflow Pipe. — The overflow pipe must be 2 inches 
in diameter for tanks up to 30,000 gallons capacity and 3 
inches in diameter for larger tanks. 

A short length of 2-inch pipe will discharge about 100 
gallons per minute when the surface of the water is three 
inches above the centre of the pipe. 

The top of the overflow pipe must be placed 3 inches 
below the top of the staves of a wooden tank and 1 inch 
below the top of the cylindrical shell of a steel tank. 

The overflow pipe must extend through the bottom or 
side of tank. In the latter case it must project beyond the 
balcony. 

Frost-Proofing for 
Pipes. — The discharge 
and hot water or steam 
pipes, and separate filling 
pipe when one is needed, 
for a tank on a tower on 
the ground or roof of a 
building, must be pro- 
tected from freezing by a 
frost-proof covering in 
addition to having the 
water in the discharge 
pipe heated. 

The frost-proof cov- 
ering should not be de- 
pended upon to prevent 
freezing of the pipes 
without some heat being added. Most tanks for fire pro- 
tective purposes have no draft from them except in case of 
fire, therefore the water in the discharge pipes has little or 
no circulation. For this reason, these pipes need more thor- 
ough protection than do pipes in similar positions which 
discharge from tanks in which there is nearly constant cir- 
culation, as for example in a village supply. Therefore the 
amount of protection to be provided for a certain pipe must 
be decided with due regard to the severity of exposure to 




Fig. 148 
Expansion Joint for Wooden Tanlis 



328 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



cold winter winds, frequency of circulation in the pipe and 
amount of heat to be supplied. 

The standard frost-proof boxings are made of wood 
and are circular as shown in Fig. 149, or square in section 
as shown in Fig. 150. 

The boxings may be made more durable by using stock 
which has been antiseptically treated. 

A good tight joint must be made between boxing and 
bottom of tank. The lower end of boxing must be sup- 
ported by the sides of the pit, which must extend about a 
foot above ground. The woodwork must be well painted. 

Sheet lead or tarred paper should be placed between bot- 
tom of boxing and the pit to avoid absorption of moisture. 






^■■^>l!. 



Ksl 



Z'Galv'd 
iron band 
at each 



The upper part of 
boxing must be con- 
structed so as to permit of 
access to the expansion 
joint without the neces- 
sity of destroying any 
portion of the boxing. 

The boxing must be 
made four-ply, with two 
air spaces, for tanks in 
northern Canada. It must 
be three-ply, with two air 
spaces, as shown in Figs. 
149 and 150, for tanks in 
New England, New York, Ontario, Michigan and Wisconsin. 
Two-ply boxing with two air spaces must be used in States 
immediately south of this section. This boxing may also 
be used in the Southern States or else the pipes may be 
wrapped with felt and tar paper and covered with canvas. 




Fig. 149 
Circular Frost-Proof Boxing 



Calculating Wind Stresses in a Four- Post Tower 

The following is one method of computing the stresses 
due to the wind. The problem involves a simple application 
of graphic statics, and depends upon the proposition that 
a force is fully determined when its magnitude, direction 
and point of application are known. Such a force may be 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



329 



represented by a line, and the stress diagram in its simplest 
form represents the force as sides of a polygon taken in 
order. The closing side in reverse order is the resultant in 
magnitude and direction. The diagram shown in Fig. 151 
is a typical one and the method of computation is as follows : 
1 represents one bent of a 100-foot tower supporting a 
40,000-gallon tank. The loadings beginning at the top of 
the diagram are 4,330 pounds, applied at centre of gravity 
of the projected surface of tank and roof; 1,750 pounds, 
which is equal to 100 pounds per foot or i/^ the height of the 
top stage; 3,500 pounds, which is equal to 100 pounds per 
foot for 1/2 the heights of the top and middle stages; and 






,«!*' 



''^^^^i'h... 




Fig. 150 
Square Frost-Proof Boxing 

3,700 pounds, which is equal to 100 pounds per foot for i/^ 
the heights of middle and bottom stages. One-half the 
wind load is used because one bent is being considered. 

2 shows the stress diagram and, as it is drawn to scale, 
the force resulting may be measured directly from it. 

3 is a plan-view of 1 and shows the wind blowing in 
the plane of one bent. This being the case the axis of rota- 
tion will be through xx and posts r and s will take com- 
pression, while posts o and p will take tension. The amount 
of the compression in post o has been found from the dia- 
gram to be 39600 pounds. The uplift or tension in the 
anchor bolt at the foot of post p will be a like amount. Sup- 



330 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



pose, however, we consider the wind blowing in some other 
direction and determine which is the worst case for wind 
loading. 

4 shows the same plan-view with the wind blowing in 
a diagonal direction, as indicated by arrow. The axis of 
rotation will be through xx, and this being the case post r 




3700 



Scale iiR?4Dft 
I 



X 

3 




/^^-1 



Scale li^tOOOO lbs. 
2 

Fig. 151 
IHagTam of Wind Pr^^^res 



will take all the compression. The relative amounts of the 
compression in these two axes are shown to be as follows : 
In 3 let m represent the total overturning moment, then 

the compression in r and s is equal to- ^ ^ while in 4 the com- 
pression m r equals 2^= ^^ 



4y 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 331 

In other words the compression in r in 4 is the same 
as the compression in either r or s, in 3, times V^ therefore 
the maximum compression due to the load may be taken as 
the amount scaled from the stress diagram multiplied by the 

Similarly the maximum tension in any set of anchor 
bolts will be equal to the maximum compression in the lee- 
ward post in 3 less one-fourth the total weight of the 
structure and tank. 

The stresses in the diagonal rods and struts are consid- 
ered to be the maximum when the wind is blowing as in 3, 
and therefore maj^ be scaled directly from the diagram. 

Hydraulic Rams. — The hydraulic ram is an engine for 
pumping water, using the force stored up in a moving 
column of water to cause a shock or water hammer, which 
will take water from one level and raise it to a higher eleva- 
tion. By means of a ram, water at a low head may be used 
to raise a portion of the same or some other water to a level 
higher than the supply. These efficient engines will pump 
water 30 feet high for every foot of fall. They will operate 
with as little as 2 feet fall, or with a head of 30 feet, and 
will deliver water to a height of 500 feet and to a distance 
of 21/2 miles. Finally, they may be had in sizes which v/ill 
deliver from 1500 gallons a day to 1,000,000 gallons in 24 
hours. 

A Rife Hydraulic Engine is shown in Fig. 152. This 
contains only two working parts, the waste valve and the 
supply valve, so that once the engine is set up and started, 
it will continue to Avork successfully until some parts of the 
valves wear so they need repair. They cost nothing for 
operating expenses, and are about on a par with windmills 
in point of economy for operating. 

Rife hydraulic engines are made in two types. One is 
the single-acting engine which elevates part of the water 
used for operating the ram, and the other is a double-acting 
engine, w^hich pumps a pure water, using a supply of 
inferior water to operate the ram. The principles of opera- 
tion of these two types can be seen in Fig. 153, which shows 
the operating parts of the engine. In the single-acting ram 



3S2 



Principles and Practice of Plunging 



the pipe marked h-i is omitted, and the operation of the 
engine is as follows: 

The valve at b being open, the water from the source of 
supply at more or less elevation above the machine flows 
down the drive-pipe a, and escapes through the opening at 
6, until the pressure due to the increasing velocity of the 
water is sufficient to close the valve b. At the moment 
when the flow through this valve ceases, the inertia of the 
moving column of water produces 
the so-called ramming stroke, which 
opens the valve at c, and com- 
presses the air in the air chamber 
d, until the pressure of the air plus 
the pressure due to the head of the 
water in the main, is sufficient to 
overcome the inertia of the moving 
column of water in the drive-pipe. 
This motion may be likened to the 
oscillations in a U-tube. At this 





E-: 



instant the column of water in the drive-pipe has come to a 
rest, and the air pressure being greater than the static head 
alone, the direction of motion of the mo\'ing column is 
reversed and the valve, c, closed. The water in the drive- 
pipe is then moving backward, and with the closing of c a 
tendency to a vacuum is produced at the ba^e of the drive^ 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



33B 



pipe; this negative pressure causes the valve b, to open 
again, completing the cycle of operations. At the moment 
of negative pressure the little snifting valve, e, admits a 
small quantity of air, and at the following stroke this passes 
into the air chamber, which would otherwise gradually fill 
with water, the air being gradually taken up by water. 

In many machines the mistake is made of making the 
waste-valve, b, sufficiently heavy to overcome the static head 
of water in the drive-pipe. In fact, most writers on this 
subject, including the ''Encyclopedia Britannica," state that 
the weight of the waste valve, b, must be greater than the 




Fig. 153 

Section of Rife Hydraulic Ram for Pumping Water, 
Using Impure Water for Power 

pressure of the statical head of water on its under side so 
that it may open when the column of water comes to rest. 
In the machine which we are describing this would be prac- 
tically impossible on account of the large area of the open- 
ing at b. 

In this machine the valve, b, is made as light as is con- 
sistent with the necessary strength; the negative pressure 
at the end of the stroke is relied upon to open the valve. 

When an impure water is to be used to drive the ram 
and deliver a pure water, the pipe, h-i, is attached to the 
ram as shown in the illustration, and the spring water is 
delivered to the ram through this pipe. The engine is then 



334 



Principles and Practice of Plumhing 



double-acting, and by a proper adjustment of the relative 
flow of the impure driving water and the pure spring water, 
the engine may be made to deliver only pure water to the 
supply tank. This method is used only where the supply of 
pure water is limited, and there is a plentiful supply of the 
driving water. To deliver pure water, using impure water 
as power, there must be at least 18 to 24 inches of fall from 
the spring stand-pipe to the engine. If there is a greater 
natural fall, it must be piped to a tank having an overflow 
24 inches above the supply pipe, h-i, so there will not be a 
greater head than two feet to the pure water. The engine 
should be set on a firm, level foundation, but need not be 
fastened. 



TABLE XCII. Sizes of Rife Rams 





Dimensions 


Size of 
Drive-Pipe 


Size of 
Delivery-Pipe 


Gallons per 

Minute 

Required 

to Operate 

Engine 


Least Feet 
of Fall Recom- 
mended 




HI 

3 

2: 


'3 


Si 

C 

h4 


J3 

•a 




10 

15 

*20 

25 

30 

40 

80 

*120 

tl20 


2' 1" 
2' 1" 
2' 3" 
2' 3" 
2' 7" 
3' 3" 

r 4" 

8' 9" 


3' 2" 
3' 4" 
3' 8" 
3' 9" 
3'10" 
4' 4" 
8' 4" 

9' 6" 


1' 8" 
1' 8" 
1' 9" 
1' 9" 

rio" 

2' 0" 
2' 8" 

3' 8" 


IM" 

\y" 

2" 

3" 

4" 

8" 

12" 

2-12" 


y 
I" 
1" 
iM" 

2" 
4" 
5" 
6" 


3 to 6 
5 to 12 

10 to 18 

11 to 24 
15 to 35 
30 to 75 

150 to 350 
375 to 750 
750 to 1500 


3 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


150 

175 

252 

250 

275 

600 

2500 

3000 

5500 



*Siiiffle. 



tDuplex. 



Drive-Pipe for Ram. — The length of drive pipe is gov- 
erned by the ratio of fall or driving head to elevation or 
pumping head. If the drive pipe is either too long or too 
short, the automatic supply of air will be interfered with 
and the efficiency of the engine impaired. The drive pipe 
must be laid in a perfectly straight line, without bends or 
curves, except where the pipe enters the engine, and this 
should be made by bending the pipe. The upper end of the 
drive pipe where it takes in water ought to be far enough 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



335 



below the surface so it will not take in air. It should be 
submerged one foot or more, and the entrance protected by 
a good open strainer. The delivery pipe can be laid with 
the necessary fittings, according to the usual practice with 
water pipes. 

In Table XCII can be found the size of drive pipe, 
dimensions and quantity of water required to operate diflier- 
ent sizes of Rife Rams. 

In Table XCIII can be found the sizes of Gould rams 
and the length of drive pipes to operate them. These 
lengths may be accepted as approximations for usual con- 
ditions. 

TABLE XCIII. Conditions and Sizes* of Gould Rams 



To Deliver Water 


Place Ram under 


Conducted through 


to Height of 






20 ft. above Ram 


3 ft. Head of Fall 


30 ft. of Drive Pipe 


30 ft. above Ram 


4 ft. Head of Fall 


30 ft. of Drive Pipe 


40 ft. above Ram 


5 ft. Head of Fall 


40 ft. of Drive Pipe 


50 ft. above Ram 


7 ft. Head of Fall 


50 ft. of Drive Pipe 


60 ft. above Ram 


8 ft. Head of Fall 


60 ft. of Drive Pipe 


80 ft. above Ram 


10 ft. Head of Fall 


80 ft. of Drive Pipe 


100 ft. above Ram . 


14 ft. Head of Fall 


100 ft. of Drive Pipe 


120 ft. above Ram 


17 ft. Head of Fall 


125 ft. of Drive Pipe 



*Any size Kam may be operated under these conditions and will afford the 
following approximate delivery : 



No. 2 requires 
No. 3 requires 
No. 4 requires 
No. 5 requires 
No. 6 requires 
No. 7 requires 
No. 8 requires 



2 to 3 gals, 

2 to 4 gals. 

3 to 7 gals. 
6 to 12 gals. 

11 to 20 gals. 
18 to 35 gals 
30 to 60 gals 



per minute 
per minute 
per minute 
per minute 
per m'inute 
per minute 
per minute 



and delivers 
and delivers 
and delivers 
and delivers 
and delivers 
and delivers 



10 to 
10 to 
15 to 
30 to 
65 to 
90 to 



and delivers 150 to 



15 gals, 

20 gals 

35 gals 

60 gals, 

100 gals, 

175 gals. 

300 gals. 



per hour 
per hour 
per hour 
per hour 
per hour 
per hour 
per hour 



Efficiency and Capacity of Rams. — The question of 
efficiency of hydraulic rams has been much discussed, and 
such authorities as Rankine and D'Aubisson differ consider- 
ably in their calculations. Rankine's formula is : 

(Q— q) H' 

where Q is the quantity of water flowing per second in the 



336 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

drive-pipe ; q, the quantity flowing per second to the stand- 
pipe through the discharge pipe; H, the height from the 
escape valve to the level of the reservoir which feeds the 
drive-pipe ; and h, the difference in the level of the water- 
supply reservoir and the water in the stand-pipe. D'Aubis- 
son states the formula for efficiencv as 



E = 



_ q I H - h) 



Q H 

D'Aubisson's is the correct one, considering the mechan- 
ism as a machine receiving energy at one end and delivering 
it at the other, while if the machine is considered as elevat- 
ing water only from the one reservoir to the other, Ran- 
kine's formula is the correct one to use. 

The capacities of Rife Rams can be found in Table 
XCIV. 

The size of ram to use is easily determined by either of 
the two tables given. For instance, opposite each ram the 
maximum and minimum amount of water this ram will use 
will be found, and by simply multiplying either the maxi- 
mum or minimum amounts the ram uses by the factors 
found in the table of capacities, will give either the mini- 
mum or maximum amount this particular ram will deliver. 
Take a No. 20 engine for example. This ram will use from 
10 to 18 gallons a minute. Now, then, if it is found that 
15 gallons of water is all that is available, then multiply 
that amount by the factor found in the table of efflciencies, 
which will give the amount of water that will be delivered. 

The factors in the table are based on the ratio of power 
head or fall for the drive pipe, to the height the water must 
be elevated. This and the efficiency developed are shown 
in connection with the example worked out, in the corner of 
Table of Capacities. It will be noted that the number of 
gallons is 1400 per minute, which is multiplied by 192. Now, 
opposite 10 foot fall and under 50 elevation, this number 
192 is found. This is a ratio of 5 to 1. In looking at the 
bottom of page giving the eificiencies, it will be found that 
the ratio from 1 to 8 up to 1 to 18 equals 66 2 S^c efficiency, 
so that in determining the amount this ram will deliver, it 
was figured on 66 2 S^c efficiency. A ram, if installed 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



337 



B 

a 

o 






l-H 



1 

Q 

<u 
o 

-u 
CO 

u, 

V 

<v 

Xi 

-4-> 

-u 
lU 
(U 

V 

X 

u 
o 

Si 

_M 

'S 


o 
o 


T-H 1— 1 1— 1 1— 1 1— 1 


o 

00 




o 


I>T-ico^O(M'*OOCO(M^i:0000 

1— 1 1— 1 -i—H T— 1 r— 1 1— 1 T— 1 


^-1 


cor-icoioiMoccqoo^t^^^oocqo 

(NCOCO»Oi:OCOOOO:)i-H(MCOLOCOIr^C550 

T— It— li— It— It— (T— Ir-HC^ 


o 


^CCOO'*(^^OCO(NOOrt^OcO(^^QOT:^^C 
(MCO^iOCDt^OOO^T-icqTficOt^OiOfN^ 

1— li— lrHT-<i— (r-IC^(M(M 


o 
o 


CiCOb-t^t^OOiOiO^CO(M(MOOOiOO 

(M^ioccr^ooc3T-ico>jr:)ir^C5'— icoioooo 


o 

OS 


^OOCO-rt^iOCDCOlr^OOOi— KM-^lOCDOOOcO 

oqcoiocot^ooo50(M»oi>-C5r-icoiot>-oco 

1— lT-l,-<i— lr-(Cq(M(MC^C0CO 


o 
00 


t^coO(rq^oooo'*oo(NOO-*oocx)Tj<K:) 

rH,-ll-(T-ll— l(N(NC^(MCOCOTti 


o 


COiOCOOOOii— ifMCOCOasC^-^oOOTtit^COCO 

,-lrHT~lT-lrH(M(M(MC0COC0^'* 


o 


{M-*OOOOiT-iC^'?tiCDC:(MiOOCOt^Ot^O'* 
T-(i-li-lT-lT-l(MC^COCOCO-^TtliOiO 


o 
* 


(NiOt^Oi— iC0iOt^0lC0t^(MCiC01r^(N 

1— ii— ii— iT-iT-fc^^cqccco^^io 
* 


o 


CO(NOO^OOC^CDC^T— ICCC^COO 
^t^Osd^OOr-iiOOiOCCOO-^ 

,— l,-l,-lrH(^q<^^(^?co^'*lO 


EXAMPLE 

With a supply of 1400 gallons per 
minute, 10 feet fall, 50 feet elevation, 
No. 120 engine will deliver 268,800 gal- 
lons per day. 1400 X 192 = 268,!800 


o 


^cOOOOC^LOOOOOiO 

coc5C<i<oc5ccr^oocoo 

r-ll-ti-lC^C^COCC^lO 


o 


O'Tt^O^Ot^COOOTti 

r-l,-l<MCOCOTtlTtllO 


to 


GO fM O LC (M lO 
(M Ci >0 '^ CO O 
1— 1 1— i(N CO '^ lO 


o 


(M r-l <N O 

C2 O CO -^ 

T-H CO '^ LO 


^ 


o 


> <v c 
c 


3 


(MCO-^LOOt^OCOOCM^crJOCOCM' 


■* O CX) o 
N| tN (M CO 



>5 

J2 



C^CO- 



©OR 



SH =t-i <i_<t-i <w 



338 



Principles and Practice of PViimhing 



under 3 foot fall and 75 foot elevation, which is a ratio of 
1 to 25, the efficiency table shows that 50% efficiency would 
be developed where the ratio is 1 to 23 up to 1 to 30. 

Pneumatic Water Supply.— The pneumatic system 
of water supply utilizes the compressibility of air to force 
water out of a tank to any required elevation. When 
water is pumped into an empty tank, the air already in the 
tank is trapped there and compressed in the upper part, the 
water occupying the lower part of the tank. All pipe con- 
nections are made near the bottom of the tank so the air 
cannot escape, then, when a faucet is opened, the com- 
pressed air within the tank forces the water out at the 
fixture. 

The air in the tank would soon become exhausted, how- 
ever, if more air were not supplied in proportion to the 
water pumped into the tank, and to keep up the supply of 
air a small air compressor, ''snifter" valve, or some other 
equally positive device must be employed to pump air into 
the tank. The quantity of water that a tank will deliver 
at a given pressure and elevation depends on the proportion 
of air and water in the tank. If the air cushion is of small 
volume, the pressure drops so rapidly when water is drawn, 
that it becomes necessary to pump in more water, thus in- 
creasing the pressure by compressing the air into still 
smaller space. But this does not increase the volume of air. 

The pressure of air in tanks when partly full of water, 
can be seen in Table XCV. 



TABLE XCV. Proportions of Air and Water in Tanks 



Amount of Water 
Pumped in Tank 


If Tank Contained 

only Atmosphere, 

Pressure will be 


If Tank is First 

Pumped to 10 Pounds 

Pressure wath Air 

the Pressure will be 


1 4 fuU of Water 


5 Pounds 


18 Pounds 


2 /5 fuU of Water 


10 Pounds 


26 Pounds 


1/2 fuU of Water 


15 Pounds 


34 Pounds 


"?■ /5 fuU of Water 


22 Pounds 


47 Poimds 


2/3 full of Water 


29 Pounds 


58 Pounds 


3 /4 full of Water 


-io Pounds 


83 Pounds 



It will be noticed from the table of pressures that where 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 839 

only the atmosphere in the tank is trapped and compressed, 
the volume of air is not sufficient to deliver under pressure 
all the water contained in the tank. For average require- 
ments the best results are obtained when the proportion 
two-thirds water and one-third air is maintained. At this 
proportion the atmosphere in the tank will be compressed to 
a point where it will exert a pressure of 29 pounds per 
square inch. 

Now, if water be further drawn off, until the pressure 
falls to 5 pounds, the tank will still be one-quarter full of 
water, and the pressure of air will not be sufficient to de- 
liver it to any fixture higher than the tank itself, and that 
one-quarter tank of water will not be available. Had 10 
pounds of air been pumped into the tank first, the pressure 
would be 58 pounds at the proportion of two-thirds water 
and one-third air, and this pressure would force practically 
all the water out of the tank, having a pressure of 18 pounds 
to force out the last quarter of water. 

Another advantage of an initial air pressure of 10 
pounds lies in the fact that a smaller tank can be used for 
a given installation. For instance, if a 750-gallon tank is 
first pumped to 10 pounds pressure with air, it will deliver 
as much water at equal pressure as would be available from 
a 1000-gallon tank without the additional air pressure. 



340 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XXXI 
PLUMBING FIXTURES 



Classification of Fixtures 

Plumbing Fixtures. — Plumbing fixtures are here 
considered solely from a sanitary point of view. Types are 
discussed but not the various modifications or makes. Those 
may be seen in the show rooms of plumbing supply houses 
or very natural illustrations of them can be seen in plumb- 
ing supply catalogues. 

Plumbing fixtures are receptacles for soil and waste 
water from which it is discharged into the drainage system. 
There are several classes of fixtures, each fixture being 
classified according to its use. Thus : Soil fixtures include 
water closets, urinals, school sinks, bidets, slop sinks, and 
all other fixtures into which soil is discharged. Scullery 
fixtures include kitchen sinks, pantry sinks, laundry tubs, 
and any fixture used in the preparation of meals or washing 
of household goods. Laving fixtures include wash basins, 
bath tubs, needle, shower and spray baths, and any fixture 
used for cleansing the person. Clean water fixtures like 
drinking fountains form a group by themselves. 

Requirements of Sanitary Fixtures. — To be per- 
fectly sanitary, plumbing fixtures must be made of some 
non-absorbent, non-corrosive material that is not easily 
cracked, crazed or broken, and that has perfectly smooth 
surfaces to which soil will not adhere so firmly that it can- 
not be removed by a flush of water. Outlets of fixtures 
should be as large or larger than the waste pipe and should 
be unobstructed by strainers or cross-bars, so that the waste 
pipe will receive a scourging fiush at each discharge of the 
fixture. Fixtures that are provided with stoppers for the 
waste outlet generally have overflows to prevent water 
overflowing the fixture when the stopper is in place. There 
is no reason why lavatories and bath tubs should have over- 
flow channels, however. They seldom are of sufficient size 
to carry off the inflow of water, so they do not perform the 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



341 




function for which intended. Often they leak when water 
rises to their level, and at all times they are unsatisfactory 
channels, which might well be dispensed with. Fixtures 
should be set open, that is, perfectly free from enclosing 
woodwork or other casings that would cut off light and air. 
They should be well supplied with 
water for flushing, and in public 
places the walls and floor where 
they are set should be lined with 
some non-absorbent material. 

Requirements of a Sani- 
tary Closet. — To 
be efficient and san- 
itary, a water closet 
should be made of 
porcelain enameled 
iron or of vitreous 
ware, and must be 
absolutely free from 
working mechanism within the 
receptacle. It must contain a suf- 
ficient depth of water to com- 
pletely cover any excremental 
matter deposited in it, so as to 
prevent odor. It must have no 
surfaces that can become soiled 
or that are not thor- 
oughly water scour- 
ed every time the 
fixture is flushed. It 
must be supplied at 
each discharge with 
a sufficient volume 
of water to remove the entire contents of the bowl and trap 
and replace it with fresh water. The water should be dis- 
charged into the closet suddenly, with force, and in a large 
volume, and the closet must be connected to the soil pipe 
with a perfectly tight and permanently tight floor flange, 
that is flexible to yield with shrinkage, settlement, and 




Fig. 154 
Hopper Closet 



342 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

other movement of the building. No closet can be sanitary 
which depends on a putty- joint for a seal. 

Hopper Closets. — The simplest form of water closet 
is a hopper closet, shown in Fig. 154. It consists of a fun- 
nel or hopper-shaped bowl fitted with a flushing rim or pipe- 
wash conne:": n. This type of closet contains no water in 
the bowl ana :ne converging sides are dry and present the 
maximum surface to be soiled. Hopper closets are installed 
principally in exposed places where other t^iDCs of closets 
that contain water would be damaged by the frost. When 
thus installed the closet trap and water supply valve are 
located in a pit below frost level, and after each flush of the 
fixture the water is automatically drained from the flush 
pipe down to the valve. When fitted up in this manner the 
entire inner surface of the pipe from the hopper to the trap, 
sometimes becomes covered with a coating of slime that in 
warm weather gives off a very disagreeable odor. At their 
best they are unsanitary and objectionable, and should not 
be permitted. Hopper closets located in warm places 
should be flushed from a tank or flush valve and should have 
the trap placed as close as possible to the closet bowl. 

Number of Fixtures Required. — The number of 
plumbing fixtures required depends somewhat on the type 
of building to be equipped. In Table XCVI will be found 
the number of fixn:ures of various kinds found sufficient to 
sene 100 patients in state hospitals for the insane in New 
York State. 

TABLE XCM. Plumbing Fixtures Required in Hospitals 



Kind oi Fixtures 


::::-:- -:_;:; —r ::: ?!:--: = 


In Men 5 Wari In ": — en 5 ''■'s.ri 


Water Oosets 


8 

4 

10 

2 

1 


9 


Uiinak 

Lavatories. 

Rain Baths 

Bath Tub? 




9 


1 



The number of toilet fixtures required in school build- 
ings can be found in Table XCVII. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



343 



Laundry Fixtures and Connections. — The follow- 
ing list shows the fixtures installed in the laundry of the 
New York Ambassador, and the steam w^ater waste and 
electric connections required: 



No. 



Kind of Machines 



Connections 



42x72" Washers 

42x36" No. 12 Washers 

40" Overbelt Driven Extractors 

28" Extractor 

100 GaUon Soap Tanks 

Wood Truck Tubs 

48x54" Clothes Tumbler 

42x60" Hot Air Tumbler 

50 Gallon Starch Cooker 

Zinc Covered Starch Table 

18" C. & C. Starcher 

3 loop 9' Conveyor DrjToom 

Xo. 1 C. & C. Dampener 

Heubsch Spray Dampener 

Bishop Dampening Press 

30x120" Big Two Ironers 

66" Handy Tj-pe Ironer 

38" Troy-Prosperity Presses 

No. 361 Hagen-Ke3'stone Bosom Press 

Tvpe ''C" Double Cuff Press 

T^-pe^'C" Single Neckband Press 

24" Steam C. & C. Ironer 

30x96" Finishing Table 

No. 624 Shaw Collar Shaper 

Zeidler Improved Seam Dampener. . . . 

4^" Porcelain Hot Tube Shaper 

Shirt Ironing Table with outfit 

Skirt Ironing Tables 

No. 666 Gilbert Suspension Arms 

No. 6 Electric Irons 

Box Curtain Diyer 

3 Compartment Stationary Tub 

Flatwork Tables 



Hot and Cold Water, Steam 

and Electricity 
Hot and Cold Water, Steam 

and Electricity 
Connections for drain only, 

and electricity 
Connections for drain only, 

and electricity. 
Cold Water and Steam Con- 
nections. 
None. 
Electricity. 
Steam, Return '^ith Trap and 

Electricity. 
Steam only. 
Steam only 
Steam, Return with Trap & 

Electricit}'. 
Steam, Return ^^-ith Trap k 

Electricity 
Electricity. 
Water and Steam. 
None. 
Steam, Return with Trafs 

and Electricity. 
Steam, Return \s'ith Trap 

and Electricity. 
Steam, Return with Trap 
Steam, Return with Trap 

and Electricit}'. 
Steam, Return -^ith Trap. 
Steam and Return -^ith Trap. 
Steam, Return with Trap and 

Electricity . 
None 

Electricity 
Electricity 
Steam Connections. 
Electricity for Iron. 
Electricity for Irons. 
Electricity' . 
Electricity 

Steam, Return with Trap. 
Hot and Cold Water and 

Steam. 
None. 



344 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

TABLE XCVII. Number of Toilet Fixtures for Schools 







Kind and Number of Fixtures 




Number of Pupils 










Water Closets 


Urinals 




Girls 


Boys 


Kindergarten 


Boys 


Under 30 Children. . . . 


2 


1 


2 


2 


50 


2 


2 


3 


3 


70 


4 


2 


3 


4 


100 


5 


3 


4 


5 


150 


6 


3 


5 


7 


200 


8 


4 


6 


10 


300 


12 


5 


8 


15 



Siphon-Action Closets. — The most satisfactory 
closets are those which operate on the siphon principle, and 
contain sufficiently large bodies of water in the bowls to 
submerge and deodorize anything discharged into them. 

In addition they ought to 
be so constructed that 
there will be no dry sur- 
faces liable to foul or to 
which soil can adhere. 
The siphon-action closet 
shown in section in Fig. 
155 is distinguished from 
all other types of siphon- 
acting closets by the hori- 
zontal portion of the out- 
let leg of the trap under- 
neath the bowl. The trap 
instead of having a 
straight outlet, is more or 
less offset and curved as in all siphon-acting closets, so that 
water overflowing from the bowl will rarify the air to such 
an extent as to induce siphonic action to carry the contents 
from the bowl. There is considerable dry space above the 
water line in the bowl of this closet, and it is the least satis- 
factory of all the siphon-action types. Indeed, the dia- 
phragm forming the upper part of the short leg of the trap 




Fig. 155 

Section of an Ordinary Siphon-Action 
Closet 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



345 



p r^ 


r 


V ^ 


s 


\-~^ 


r^ 


1 

I 


f\s^SsS^ 


(\W^1 (^^^ 


w^ 






kN 





Fig. 156 

Section of a Reverse Trap 
Siphon-Action Closet 



in the bowl is so completely above the water, and so in the 
way, that it cannot escape being soiled more or less. 

Reverse-Trap Siphon-Action Closets. — What is 
known as the reverse-trap siphon-action closet is shown in 
Fig. 156. The outlet leg 
of the trap in this type is 
quite similar to the outlet 
leg of the siphon- jet 
closet, which it resembles 
in general appearance. It 
is a better appearing and 
more satisfactory closet 
in every way than the or- 
dinary siphon-action clos- 
ets. As a rule they are 
smaller than the siphon- 
jet closet, contain less 
parts, and consequently 
cost less, while at the same time they rank a close second. 

Siphon- Jet Closets. — A siphon- jet closet is shown in 
Fig. 157. This closet is vitreous, smooth, impervious and 
contains a large body of water in a receptacle so shaped 

that it cannot easily be 
soiled. In operation it is 
almost noiseless. 

The operation of a 
siphon- jet closet is as fol- 
lows: 

The flushing water 
parts upon entering the 
closet; some of it enters 
the flushing rim and 
cleanses the bowl, while 
the rest of it flows through the jet, and ejects the water 
from the closet. The ejected water enters the outlet leg of 
the closet, which is usually so constructed that the outlet 
can be easily filled with water or the air rarified. When 
the outlet leg becomes filled with water it acts as the long 
leg of a siphon, and thus siphons the contents of the bowl 




Fig. 157 
Siphon-Jet Closet 



346 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

into the soil pipe. Once the siphonic action is started it 
continues until the bowl is empty and enough air has en- 
tered the trap to prevent further siphonage. The closet is 
then refilled by the after- wash from the tank or flush valve. 

As the contents of a siphon- jet closet are Bjected by the 
pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the water in 
the bowl, it follows that a considerable volume of air from 
in and around the closet will be carried into the soil pipe at 
each discharge, thus carrying off the most impure air from 
around the closet. Some siphon-action closets are now 
made with a jet, so it is hard to distinguish one type from 
the other. However, the siphon-action is smaller, and 
usually has a side flush connection, while the siphon- jet has 
a top connection. 

One objection to the siphon-jet closet is the liability 
of shrinkage cracks or fire cracks which allow drain air to 
escape into the room. On account of the difficulty of manu- 
facture, a large percentage of siphon- jet closets have this 
concealed defect. 

Wall-hung closets are not siphon-acting. They are 
blow-out closets from which the contents are ejected or 
blown out by means of a jet of water. Closets are better 
installed resting on the floor than hung from wall or parti- 
tion. 

Closet Floor Flanges. — No closet can be considered 
perfectly sanitary which depends upon a putty-joint, gasket 
or slip-joint for a seal. The one bad and weak spot in 
past practice has been the point where the water closet is 
connected to the soil pipe. Experience has shown that 
where a putty- joint, or a rigid gasket joint or slip-connec- 
tion are used, the closet is either broken or the connection 
destroyed within a short time after the closet is installed. 
This is due to the settlements and shrinkages of the build- 
ing, or the settlements, expansions and contractions of the 
drainage system. 

The only sanitary connection for a water closet is a 
joint which is not only tight when it is put in, but will 
remain so during all the changes and movements which 
take place within the building. As many as 150 closets in 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



U1 



one building have been broken on account of rigid connec- 
tions, and where the closets are not broken the floor joints 
are. Every closet connection, then, should be provided with 
a flexible fitting of some kind to protect the closets, and the 
floor flange itself is preferably of the metal-to-metal kind. 
It is obvious that this important connection should be as 
perfect as it is possible to make it. This can be assured 
only when the flange is made in the factory and tested be- 
fore being sent out. A gasket connection is not a tight con- 
nection made so in the factory, but is merely the raw 
materials sent out for the plumber, if skillful enough, to 
make the joint tight. As it is almost an impossibility to 
make a tight joint using a rough gasket against a rough 
and irregular earth- 
enware surface, the 
plumber falls back 
on putty or paste of 
some kind to make 
the joint tight, us- 
ing it with the gas- 
ket, and to keep the 
joint tight until it 
has passed all tests. 
Such joints are not 
lasting, however, al- 
though they are 
fairly satisfactory when used in connection with a flexible 
fitting. 

The only sanitary types of flanges recognized as such 
are the metal-to-metal flanges. One flange of this type, 
known as the Standard Ball Joint, is shown in section in 
Fig. 158. This is what would be called a ground joint made 
on the well-known ball-and-socket principle. It is made 
tight in the factory, and when used in connection with a 
flexible fitting is one of the best closet floor flanges on the 
market. 

Another metal-to-metal closet floor flange, known as the 
Pres-0-Flex, is shown in Fig. 159. This is a flexible con- 
nection, so constructed that it will stretch or collapse to 




Fig. 158 
Standard Ball Joint 



348 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



take care of any reasonable settlement, shrinkage, or other 
movement of the piping or building. This flange, like the 
Ball- joint, is made tight at the factory, and tested before 
being sent out, which ought to be required of any flange 
before specifying. If the maker is not willing to stand back 
of his goods for five years, the specifying architects cannot 
be expected to have much confidence in it. 

Flush Tanks. — Water closets should always be flushed 
with water from flush tanks, or through specially con- 
structed flush valves. There are two reasons for these 
requirements : First, the flush pipe or flush valve will be of 



Base of C^asa^f-^ 



ho/ZoYV ho//- 

affac/}/rji^ 
f/ange /o 
C/osef 




•So//c/ 
Bo/f f— ■- 



Fig. 159 
:\retal-to-Metal Floor Flange 



sufficient size to supply a large volume of water in a short 
period of time, thus insuring a good flush ; second, the tank 
can be proportioned or the flush valve regulated to furnish 
a certain quantity of water at each flush. 

Flush tanks are made with capacities ranging from 6 
to 12 gallons. In large city apartment houses, hotels and 
like buildings, where a considerable volume of water is gen- 
erally flowing through the house drain, tanks of smaller 
capacity may be used than would be required in private 
houses or in large country institutions which are located a 
considerable distance from a trunk sewer or other place of 



PiHnciples and Practice of Plumbing 349 

sewage disposal. The reason for this is that in large city 
buildings if a sufficient volume of water is provided in 
closet tank or flush valve to discharge the contents of a 
closet into the soil stack, it will fall by gravity to the house 
drain, where assisted by the flowing water in the drain, it 
will be carried to the street sewer. The functions of the 
flushing water is thereby performed and water economized 
at the same time. On the other hand, assistance from other 
sources cannot be depended upon in private buildings and 
country institutions, so a sufficient volume of water must be 
provided that will carry the contents of the closet bowl all 
the way to the street sewer. Closet tanks with siphon flush 
valves are generally used in connection with washdown, and 
hopper closets, while slow-closing flush valves are used with 
siphon-jet combinations. 

Flush Valves. — Flush valves are mechanically suc- 
cessful in operation, but are suitable only for buildings sup- 
plied with water from a storage tank. This does not mean 
they will not operate on direct city pressure, or that there 
is any sanitary reason for so installing them. The trouble 
lies in the large size of pipe required. If all the closets in 
a large city were served direct from the city mains through 
flush valves, the size of mains would be excessive. 

Flush valves cannot be successfully used unless there is 
sufficient volume and pressure to operate them. For high- 
pressure service they require a head of at least twenty feet ; 
where this head is unavailable, special low-pressure valves 
should be used. 

Flush valves can be regulated to discharge almost any 
desired quantity of water at each flush of a fixture. The 
usual amounts vary from 4 to 8 gallons, which are dis- 
charged in from 3 to 6 seconds' time. If the service pipe is 
not large enough to supply this quantity of water within the 
required time a flush valve cannot be successfully used. 

Size of Pipes for Flush Valves. — Care must be taken 
when installing flush valve systems to proportion the pipes 
so each valve will have an adequate supply of water. No 
pipe in the system should be smaller than 1 inch in diameter, 
^nd three to five closets is the greatest number a li/^-inch 



350 Principles, and PraeUee of PUmMng 

pijie will supply at the average pressure of 30 pounds. 
When there are more than four closets in an installation, a 
safe rule is to allo^r in the supply main the capacity of 
%-inch pipe for each closet When the large battery of 
closets is at a place of public assemblage like a ball ground, 
the allowance should be midway between -54 and 1 inch for 
each closets When there are a greater number of closets 
than 100 in an office building, it can be assumed that all will 
not be operating at the same time and an allowance of the 
capacity of -%-inch pipe be made for all the closets or of a 
1-inch pipe for the greatest probable number that will be 
operated simultaneously. 

EiXAMPLE — Wliat saze of • £:-: -ii- will be reqniied to sappif twenly-oiie 
Siidi Talves? 

S^HxnoTT — Reqniied a pipe hanng; the capadtr of tweatj-fflie %-iiich 
pipeS; and Tabfe LI dbows that a 2)44iidti ^pe has a eapacitr of 2^ 
f^-inch pipes, therefore a 2%4iich pipe dMNild be used. 

The sizes of pipes required for flush valves determined 
by the foregoing rule are based on ihe assumption that a 
main of adequate size is provided for the group, so the 
lengtii of run from the main to the first flush valve will not 
be over twenty to forty feet, dei)ending on the pressure, the 
range of pressure being from twenty to sixty pounds. If 
there is a long run of pipe from the source of supply to the 
group of closets to be served, the main must be propor- 
tioned to take care of the additional f rictional resistance in 
the pipes. The capacity of a 1-inch pipe for each closet in 
the group will take care of the friction. 

Table XCMII gives the size of pipe required for a 
single flush valve installation, it being understood, of course, 
that as the number of water closets increases, the ratio of 
the size of pipes becomes smaller, due to the fact that the 
supply piping must only be large enough to take care of 
the maximum number of closets that are liable to be oper- 
ated at one time. 

School Sinks and Latrine Troughs. — School sinks 
or latrines are sometimes installed in schools, barracks, 
hospitals and like institutions. They are very unsanitary 
in constru^on and violate almost every known sanitary 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



351 



requirement for a plumbing fixture. Oftentimes they are 
made of plain iron which corrodes and becomes foul smell- 
ing; frequently they are encased in woodwork which shuts 
out light and air, and that becomes filthy from deposits of 
soil and foul from saturation of urine; they furnish breed- 
ing places for bacteria and vermin, and worst of all, some- 
times retain for hours rank and putrid substances that 
should be immediately removed from sense of sight and 
smell. Water closets are made that are particularly adapt- 
ed for hospital barracks, schools and public toilet rooms, 
where great strength and durability are required in a fix- 
ture, and one that can easily be cleansed with hose and 
broom without damage to any part. These closets can be 
had in washdown or siphon-jet types. 



TABLE XCVIII. Size of Pip 


e f 01 


• Single Flush Valve 


Minimum Pres- 
sure at the 
Flush Valve 


Total feet of supply pipe from the flush valve to the street 
main or storage tank 




5 


10 


20 


30 


40 


60 


80 100 


150 


200 



Size of pipe for one water closet 



5 Pounds 


IK 


ly?. 


iy2 


iy2 


2 


2 


2 


2y, 


^y 


3 


10 Pounds 




IH 


ly?. 


ly?. 


ly?. 


w?. 


2 


2 


2y. 


2y 


20 Pounds 






ly 


ly 


ly 


v-A 


IK2 


ly?. 


2 


2 


30 Pounds 






1 


ly 


ly 


ly 


ly. 


ly?. 


ly 


ly 


40 Pounds 






1 




\y 


ly 


\y 


ly 


ly 


ly 


60 Pounds 


H 




1 






ly 


\y 


\y 


ly 


ly 


80 Pounds 


H 


% 


1 








ly 


ly 


ly 


ly 



Add 10 feet for each 90 degree fitting. 

Ventilation of Closet Compartments. — Rooms in 
which water closets are situated should be well ventilated to 
insure a frequent change of air. This requirement is abso- 
lute in large toilet rooms containing many washout or other 
non-deodorizing closets. 

A method of ventilating closet compartments is shown 
in Fig. 160. The separate flues in this system should never 
be less than 6 inches in diameter, and when possible to place 
a small steam or hot water coil in the bottom of each flue, 
the direction of the current of air is made positive. Ventil- 
ation flues from different compartments should extend 



352 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



separately through the roof or be joined at considerable 
distance from the rooms. When joined to flues from ad- 
joining rooms they serve as sound conductors from one 
room to another. 

In case the water closets are of the siphon type, or of 
any design which contains a large volume of water and but 
little soiling surface, ventilation of the room will be all that 
is necessary, the vent registers being located back of the 
closets. If for any reason the toilet room is so located that 
the air is heavy and the ventilation consequently sluggish, 
or if it is approached by descending a few steps into the 
room, each closet of whatever type, should be vented 

through a local vent 

n 



having at least eight 
square inches of 
area, and connected 
to a shaft having a 
positive draft insur- 
ed by mechanical 
means. In many 
cases it is better to 
vent the closets, or 
the room through 
the local vents of 
the closets, than to 
vent the rooms 
through registers 
located back of the closets ; but as a rule it is better to vent 
the closet compartments used by girls through registers 
back of the closets, than to vent them through local vents 
in the closets. 

Urinals. — Urinals should be made from the least 
absorbent and least corrosive of materials, and all exposed 
connections, walls, floor and partition, should be equally 
non-absorbent and non-corrosive. If the urinals or sur- 
roundings are absorbent they will soon become saturated 
with urine and emit a most pungent and disagreeable odor. 
If made of corrosive materials they will be energetically 
attacked and destroyed by the urine. Stall urinals of 




Fig. 160 

Toilet Room Ventilator 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



353 



vitreos ware are the most satisfactory, or the least objec- 
tionable, and are best flushed with a foot valv6. 

Slop Sinks. — A slop sink at which to draw water for 
scrubbing and general cleaning and in which to empty soiled 
scrubbing water and other slops, should be provided in 

every building In a resi- Flush pipe from 7^?^M. 

dence a slop smk on the sec- ^ ^'^ 

ond floor will often save the 
cost of the fixture by pro- 
tecting the bath tub and 
water closet from the wear 
and tear incident to using 
them for drawing and 
emptying scrub water and 
slops. Hotels, office build- 
ings and other large institu- 
tions should have one or 
more slop sinks on each 
floor, and in hospitals slop 
sinks are indispensable on 
all floors. 

It is evident from the 
uses of a slop sink that it 
should be supplied with hot 
and cold water, and in addi- 
tion, hospital slop sinks 
should be flushed from an 
overhead tank or from a 
flush valve. The contents of 
bed-pans are emptied into 
hospital sinks, so that to a 
certain extent they partake 
of the functions of a water 
closet and must therefore be 
made and operated like one. The outlet to slop sinks should 
be unobstructed by strainers or cross bars, so the waste pipe 
will receive a good flush. In the case of hospital sinks this 
requirement is absolute, on account of their dual function. 
As they are in the nature of water closets they should like- 







Fig. 161 
Hospital Slop Sink 



354 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



wise' be provided with flexible metal-to-metal floor flanges. 
Slop sinks are usually made 10 to 12 inches deep and 
from 20 to 24 inches square. They are made both of iron 
and of porcelain. Iron slop sinks are made either plain, 
galvanized or porcelain enameled. 

Hospital Slop Sinks. — A hospital slop sink is shown 
in Fig. 161. The bowl of the sink is shaped like a closet 
bowl converging toward the outlet, which is large and unob- 
structed by a strainer. The sink is flushed through a flush- 
ing rim, a, from a tank overhead or from a flush valve, and 
is also supplied with hot and cold water through a combina- 
tion cock, b. The 
slop sink is also 
fitted with a 
cleansing jet, c, to 
which the water 
may be turned on 
by hand valves at 
the back of the 
sink or by the foot 
valve, d, on the 
floor. The nurse 
or orderly empties 
the contents of a 
bed-pan on the 
right side of the 
sink which is 
flushed from the 
tank, the bed-pan 
is then inverted 
and held over the 
cleansing jet in 
the left side of the bowl to be washed. 

Hospital Lavatory. — A lavatory suitable for hospital 
operating rooms is shown in Fig. 162. A hospital lava- 
tory differs from a common type only in the manner of 
operating the supply and waste valves. This is accom- 
plished by means of levers attached to the floor and oper- 
ated by foot. A hospital lavatory should be supplied with 




Fig. 162 
Hospital Lavatory 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



355 



hot and cold water through a combination cock so that 
water of any desired temperature can be drawn. 

Shower and Rain Baths. — For use in private 
homes, public and semi- 
public bathing establish- 
ments, shower and spray 
baths, Fig. 163, are very 
suitable. They are always 
ready and permit the 
bather to wash in running 
water. Many designs of 
rain, shower and needle- 
shower and spray baths are 
made, some simple and 
some elaborate. Stock fix- 
tures can be supplied to fill 
most any requirement. 
Mixing chambers, a, should 
be used with shower baths 
so the water can be tem- 
pered to the required tem- 
perature before using. 
When a mixing chamber is 
omitted, the supply valves 
should be so arranged that 
hot water cannot be turned 
on without also turning on 
the cold water. This ar- 
rangement of valves will 
prevent bathers from being 
scalded by hot water. 
Shower baths are often a 
failure, not because the 
shower baths are not prop- 
erly made, but because they 
are installed without a suf- 
ficient supply of water, or without sufficient pressure. Some- 
times they are lacking in both pressure and volume. As a 
l*ule it may be stated that no large needle shower and spray 




Fig. 163 
Needle Shower and Spray Bath 



356 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

bath will work satisfactorily with a less pressure than 20 
or 25 pounds, and a supply of the full size of the fixture con- 
nections capable of delivering from 30 to 40 gallons of 
water per minute. Even then they will not work unless the 
whole water supply system is so proportioned that there will 
not be a drop of pressure below the 20-pound limit when 
other fixtures in the building are being operated. Where 
showers are fitted up in battery, the supply mains to them 
must be sufficiently large so the throwing into service or 
cutting out of either the hot or cold water of one will not 
affect the others. Small pipes are the cause of many fail- 
ures of showers. Unless the supply mains are properly 
proportioned, when a bather has the water for his shower 
tempered to the right degree, it is suddenly made either 
hotter or colder by another shower being turned on or shut 
off. This will happen even when mixing valves are used, 
although the fluctuation of temperature will not be notice- 
able if the system is rightly proportioned, or a Leonard type 
of thermostatic mixing valve used. A hand on this valve is 
set at the temperature of water wanted and the variation 
from that temperature will not be more than two degrees. 

A great mistake in institutional work where a number 
of showers are to be used, is in getting the shower heads too 
large in diameter and with the perforation or holes too 
large and too numerous. This is unnecessary from a prac- 
tical standpoint, for a small shower head with small holes 
will give as good results ; and it is wasteful from an eco- 
nomic standpoint, for it will use too much water, part of 
which has to be heated. By actual measurement, it was 
found that one shower head was using water at the rate of 
35 gallons per minute. 

In practice it is found that a shower head 4 inches in 
diameter, having 70 holes of about 1/32-inch each, is large 
enough for all the ordinary requirements of institution or 
other shower work, and is at the same time particularly sav- 
ing of water. This size shower head operates very satis- 
factorily at a low head or pressure, owing to the increased 
velocity obtained by the use of small spray holes. 

It is found that a %-inch pipe with water at 50 pounds 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 357 

pressure will supply six 4-inch shower heads each having 70 
holes of 1/32-inch diameters. That is the very smallest 
supply for that number, and, even at the pressure stated is 
inclined to be small. That is, it would be better for six 
shower heads of the kind described to provide larger sup- 
plies, and as the pressure decreases, increase the size still 
more. 



S58 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



CHAPTER XXXII 
S\VIMMING POOLS 



Construction of Swimming Pools. — The structural 
features of a swimming pool depend somewhat upon the 
place where it will be located, and particularly on whether 
it will rest on solid foundation or be suspended from the 
steel floor beams of a building. 

A swimming pool, or plunge bath, built on a solid foun- 
dation of earth or bed rock can be seen in Fig. 164. It is 
made of reinforced concrete with walls of a thickness pro- 
portional to the size and depth of the tank. The concrete 
would be poured wet, and mixed with an integral water- 




^tpa.ided Metat 




Water proof ing. 

■-3 



Fig. 164 
Plunge Tank 

proofing compound. In addition, the bottom and walls 
would be water proofed by applying a coating of asphalt, or 
some other good water proofing material, about y^^-moh 
thick, laid hot in burlap of 8 to 12 ounce weight, then while 
still hot covered with another i/o-i^ch of the w^ater proofing 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



359 



material and burlap pressed and broomed to a proper bond. 
Where pipes pass through the walls or bottom they 
must be made water tight by means of lead flashings built 
into the concrete, and water proofing. 




After the walls have been water proofed, the tank may 
then be lined with an 8-inch wall of glazed brick. A 4-inch 
wall may be used if there is no danger of back pressure from 



360 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



ground water at the site; or instead of using brick, the 
water proofing material may be laid between two walls of 
concrete, and the inner surface lined with tile. 

The bottom of a swimming pool is made sloping, so 
there will be good drainage towards one point, and so the 
tank will be deeper at one end than at the other. In small 
tanks the depth at the shallow end will average between 31/2 
and 4 feet, and 5 to 6 feet at the deep end. In large plunge 
baths a depth of 7 to 8 feet will be found at the deep end. 




Fig. 166 
Waste Connected to Plunge Tank 

A gutter is shown at the surface level of the water. 
This gutter extends around all sides of the pool, serving as 
an overflow. Also by turning on the water the top scum or 
film can be skimmed off, thereby carrying off floating 
impurities from the surface. A railing is shown about a 
foot below the level of the gutter. 

A hanging or suspended swimming pool is shown in 
Fig. 165. The details of construction are very clearly 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



361 



shown. The bearing walls of the building must be made 
strong enough to sustain the tremendous weight of the pool 
when it is filled with water, and double I beams will be 
required at frequent intervals to support the frame work of 
the tank. The framework is made of I beams and channel 
irons, and inside of the framework a steel tank is built as a 
casing for the plunge. This tank must be made of suf- 
ficiently heavy plates to sustain the weight of lining and 
water without bending or yielding between supports. The 
inside of the tank is water proofed and lined as explained 
in the case of tanks resting on the ground. 

The waste and overflow connections to a swimming 
pool is shown in Fig. 166. The overflow pipe is made large 
enough to carry ^ concrete. 
off as much water i^k.c>^'>>:9',«^'d^;^: 
as can be dis- ||^|||^ 






\n. 



'^'■k<^< 



Woifz-rproofing> 




head. 



tubing 



Fig. 167 
Hand Rail Support 



charged into the 
tank by the sup- 
ply pipes, and the 
waste pipe is 
made large 
enough to empty 
the tank inside of 
an hour. 

Some times 
swimming pools 
are located below 
the level of the street sewer, in which case the contents of 
the tank must be elevated to the sewer when emptying by 
means of pumps. Ordinarily a centrifugal pump direct- 
connected to an electric motor is used for this purpose. 

One method of attaching anchors for the support of 
hand rails is shown in Fig. 167. A piece of pipe flattened 
at one end to keep from turning and threaded and bent at 
the right angle, is built into the wall. Then when the 
glazed brick or tile are in place the rail can be finished by 
putting the cast brass skew plates on the anchor pipes, then 
screwing into place the cast brass ring heads. 

Heating Water for Swimming Pools. — The water in 



362 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



a swimming pool is generally heated by circulating it 
through a steam water heater. Sometimes when the pool is 
at a higher level than the boiler room, a simple gravity sys- 
tem of heating by means of a coal water heater such as is 
shown in Fig. 168 is employed. The cold water supply is 
connected to the heater, and by-passed to the pool, so water 
can be supplied direct or through the heater. In very small 
tanks only one inlet and outlet connection will be necessary, 
but in large tanks multiple connections give a better distri- 




bution and circulation 
of the water. 

The usual method of 
heating water for swimming 
pools is shown in Fig. 169. The 
heater, which in this case is an 
ordinarj' feed-water heater, is 
connected up so either live steam 
or exhaust steam can be used. 
A pump is used for circulating 
the water, and the connections 
to the pump are cross connected 
to the sewer, so the water from 
the pool can be discharged by the pump into the city sewer. 

Sterilization of Swimming-Pool Water. — The water 
in a swimming pool becomes contaminated very quickly 
when in use, each bather contributing some towards this 
state of affairs. Serious infections have been traced directly 
to unsanitarj' pools. The Detroit Board of Health took 
weekly samples of a pool for a period of one year. During 



Fig. 16S 

Heating Plunge 
with Water Heater 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



363 



this time filtration and chemical disinfection were used. 
The result showed a maximum count of 216,000 colonies of 
bacteria per cubic centimeter — a cubic centimeter is about 
15 drops — and an average count of 26,706 colonies per cubic 




OS © 



bD 

be 



centimeter. All samples showed gas indicating colon bacilli. 

The water in a swimming pool ought to contain not 

more than 1,000 colonies per cubic centimeter, There is ng 



364 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



standard established as yet, however, so the practice lacks 
uniformity. The California State Board of Health offers 
the following as a standard for the bacterial purity of water 
in swimming pools, which will answer until a national 
standard is adopted : 

'*A11 the water in the pool and applied to the pool shall 



eH 



*«9r 



Vv.'m.Y "TO I^OOL S^ri.£T5 



CrRCtXATlNG OL 



PCKDL 




CIRCULATING CUTLET- 



^SOJM GUTTER DR/iIN(&CVEK5=LCfv/ 



■WPiTER SUPH-Y-J 



Fig. 170 
Swimmins: Pool Plan 



be continuously safe hygienically. As a tentative standard, 
a total bacterial count of 1,000 colonies per cubic centimeter 
on agar, incubated at 37.5 degrees C, and a B. Coli count of 
1 per cubic centimeter, is set for the pool water in any part 
of the pool examined within 48 hours after sampling. 

''All tests are to be made in accordance with the latest 



,FLOOR 



SCLTM GUTTER O OVERFLOW. 



^ 




R 



.JNLET 




aRcuL,^TIr.•G oltlet 



hVMCHINERy ROOM 



Fig. 171 
Swimming Pool Section 

methods of the American Public Health Association." 

The dilution method is now generally employed to main- 
tain the purity of the water in a swimming pool. The dilu- 
tion method consists of supplying a water that is originally 
pure, distributing that water evenly and uniformly through- 
out the tank, and supplying it in sufficient quantity to insure 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



865 



frequent changes of the .water in the pool. This is done by 
recirculating the water through cleansing and heating appa- 
ratus, and back again to the pool. 

In Fig. 170 is shown the plan of a swimming pool, and 
in Fig. 171 a section through the same pool. In Fig. 172 
can be seen the layout of apparatus serving the pool. Ref- 
erence letters refer to all three illustrations. It will be 
observed that the inlets are at one end of the tank, and the 
outlets at the other. Water is drawn from the pool and 



WATER SUPPLY 



TO POOL INLETS 




FROM POOL DRAIN 



Fig. 172 

Lay-out of Apparatus Serving Pool 

forced through the filter. A, by means of pump, B. From 
the filter the water flows to the heater, C, or is by-passed 
around the heater if the water is warm enough. From the 
heater it flows through a battery of two ultra violet ray 
sterilizers, which are generally used for the sterilizing of 
water in swimming pools. The filters clarify the water, 
the heater heats it, and the ultra violet ray apparatus steril- 
izes the water. The apparatus is so connected that new 
water from the city mains can be made pass through filter, 
heater and sterilizer before discharging into the pool. 



366 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

CHAPTER XXXIII 
APPENDIXES 



Decimal Fractions of a Foot. — Measurements ex- 
pressed in fractions of an inch can be converted into decimal 
fractions of a foot by the following rule: 

Rule — Multiply the measurement expressed in fractions 
of an inch by 1/12, and divide the numerator of the product 
by the denominator; the quotient will be the corresponding 
fraction of a foot expressed as a decimal. 

Example — Reduce % inch to a decimal fraction of a foot. 
Solution— % X 1/12 = 3/48 == .0625. Answer. 

For convenience in reference, Table XCIX of decimal 
equivalents of a foot for each 1/64 of an inch is appended. 

Decimal fractions of a foot can be converted to common 
fractions of an inch by reducing the decimal to a common 
fraction of lowest denomination and dividing it by 1/12. 

Example — Reduce .0625 of a foot to a fraction of an inch. 

Solution— .0625 = -^^ = 1/16, and 1/16-^1/12 = %. Answer. 
10000 ^ ^ 

Decimal Equivalents of an Inch. — Measurements 
that are expressed in fractions of an inch can be converted 
into decimal fractions by dividing the numerator by the 
denominator. 

Example — What is the decimal equivalent of Ys of an inch? 
Solution — Vs =: 1 -^ 8 = .125. AnsAver. 

Fractions of an inch expressed as decimals can be con- 
verted to common fractions of an inch by changing the 
decimal to a common fraction, and then reducing it to its 
lowest terms. Decimals can be changed to common frac- 
tions by using the decimal for a numerator, and writing 
below it for denominator 1, with as many ciphers annexed 
as there are decimal places in the numerator. 

Example — Reduce .125 to a common fraction. 

125 

Solution — .125 = =: Vs. Answer. 

1000 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



367 






COCO(^:)CO(^tl|^0'*■<*■^t^■rt^Tt^■^t^•^lOiOtOlOOK:)LOOOCOCOO^DOOcOt^^^I>. 
OOGOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOGOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC'OOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



A 

u 

fl 



OCOOOC^tOOOT--^'rt<t^OCOOOC^iOOC'-HTtit^OCOCDC5(NOCi(NiOOOT--iTti 

0'-H(^^l^^lOOt^oOl-Hl^:)'rt^looooc::0(^3(^o^cc!l:^ooci'--^(^^co>oco^^OiO 
LOiOioiO»OtoiOOcocD<:OOi:occo<:Cil:^l:^t^l>.l>.l:^l:^t^oooooooOGOGOooCi 



© 

CO 



0(XiClOi— iCO-^iOt^OOCii— iC^CO'^Ot^OOO'— iC^-^iOCOt^CiOi— (CO-^Ot^ 
CDcOcOt^t-^t^t^t^t^t^t^OOOOOOOOoOOOGOCiCSOiCiClOiOSOOOOOOO 



411 

u 

o 

© 
© 

© 
Q 






CO^Ot^(X)C5i-H(NCOiOOIr^050i-H(N^tOCD00050<NCO-^iOt^OOOli-HOqcO 
OOOOOOOOOOOOOiC5:i010105050iOOOOOOOO'-Hi— iT-l,— (T-Wi— It— iT—lCOCQC^ 



OcOOC5(NiOCOt— I'^t^OCOCOOtifNiOCXDi-H^lr^OCOCOOiC^OCsC^liOOOi— 1"^ 
OrH(NCOiOCDl:^OiOi-HirO'^i0000050C<lCOTtiCDrr^OOCii— iC^COOOt^OiO 
OOOOOOOO'— 1'-^'— ii— Ii-Ht— li— ii— iC^C<lC^C<l(rQC^(N(NCOCOCOCOCOCOCO'<*i 



t^OCCOOiC<liOGOr-i-^t^Ococoo:>(NtooOi--i"^l:^OCOcooi(N>^oO'-iTt<t:^0 
T--^^^■rH(^^(^q(^^c^c^^c<^c^c^cococv3coco(^:l(^^-^"^'*'*'*Tt^Ttl'*LOlJr^lOLOlOlO 

^^ ^^ "^^ ^^ '^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ''^ ^^ ^^ '^^ ^i^ ^^ "^^ ^^ ^T^ ^^ ""^ "^^ '^^ "'^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ""m^ "^^ "^^ ^^ ^"^ CO ^^ 



co-rt<uTir^(X)oii-HC^cout>ot^ciOT-(cq'^iocoooa50^>icO'<:tiLot^ooo'-HOQco 
co(^:)cocococococvDcococococO(^ococo(^ocococo■^?eocococococococo(^ocO(^ 






b-OCOCOOStNiOOO^-^b-OCOcOOifNtOOOT-i-^t^OCOCOOiC-liOGOi-^-^t-O 

OCO^t-lr-t^t^t^t^t^Ir-OOoOOOOOOOOOOOOiCiCiOiCiOasOOOOOOO 



coooc^>ocx)i-H-^t^T-i-<^t^ococr)oc<jiooor-i'<^t^ocococic^iooOi— i^t^ 

OOCX)CX)COOOGOCiCiOiOiCiCiOiOOOOOOOOrHT-Hi— It— (t-Ii— It— li— l(^JC^C^ 
OOOOOOOOOOOOOi-li-li-lT-lT-lrHi-ll-ll-ll-ll-lrH^T-HrHT-lT-l,-!,-! 



COOCiC^liOOO^HTtit^OCOcOCSC^iOOOT— iTt<t^OCOCOCiC<l«OC5C^l>OOOi-^-^^ 

'-<ClCOOOt^OO'-<CO-^iOOOOOOC<lCO-^OI>.OOOiT-lCQcOiOcOt^OO 

OOOOOOOOr-Hr-i,— It-It-It— I,— I,— i(NC^CqC<lC<lC^C^CqcOCOCOCOCOCCCO'* 

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 



CO 



CO 



00 

I 



CO 



CO 



I 



CO 


CO 

T— 1 


CO 


op 


7 


CO 


CO 


rk 


1—1 


CO 


CO 


ti 


1 

LO 



168 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 




Lt -^ t^ X O ^ !M -^ iC O X C; O — ^t ^ lC t^ X C: ^ C^l ^ ^ ^ i^ 2C O '-^ C^ "* LO 

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXcX)XCiCiCiOC50C:c:CiC:C:Ci 



t^orc^cci-ML^x — '^r^orc^rcTi'ML'tx — '^r^orc^r^CiC^u'^X'— ^t^o 

1— i re ^ i-T ^c X c: O ■M re -e ;r t^ X c; — -M re Lft :C t^ c; O '— C^l -^ L'^ ^ X o C (M 

t^t^r^t-t^t^t^xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 



rOCCCi'MOX— iTfXi— iTft^OCCOO(NiOX'-H"^OC;CC!<:OOC^LCX--HTj<i:- 
XC:OC<JCO-*cr:t^XOT-i(N'*iO«::i:^CiO'— i!:0'*'»Cl--XOOC^C0TtiOI>00 

OOi— I'—i'— ''— !■•— '■— ^^^c^c^(N'^'N'N'^'Nc^cocecoccrccoce)'^'-^"^'^'^-<t''^ 

o re --T: c: c^ Le X —i Tf t^ o re :c c; 'N Le X 1— i -^ !>. o re -^ c~. c^J :::: C". C"i ue X -- T+^ 
o d: t^ X o -^ c^i -^ Le :c X c: o — re '^ lc t^ X c: ^- e-i ce ■*■ tc t^ X o — c^i '* Le 
c<i e^ e-i e-i re re re re re re re re -e- -^ -^ "^ -^ -^ -^ -^ >-e Le Le Le i-e >^e Le :c :c --c :c :c 



O 



XI 
H 



t^ o ro CD o <N >-e X — -r t^ o re :r c; -M »-e X -^ -^ t^ c^ re --T: c. ■>! Le X ^ "^ r^ o 
■^reTfJooxooe-ire^wt^xc; — 'Mre»c--ct^c;c:; — ei'*>-e--r:xc:o(M 
"^ re -^ ^ -^ -^ -^ Le Le Le L-e le v; i-e i-e -vC ic; *-d :c :^ :d tc t^ i^ t^ i^ t>- 1^ tr^ t^ x x 
i-OOiO'-Oi-CiC'-e>-e'-e>-eLe>-C'^e'^ie'^LeLei-eoLe>-eLe>^'^ei^'^Le>-e'-eioi^ 



rewC^e-iLex^-^T+ix-^'^t^orecDcic^ox-HTj't^orewdC^Lex^-'^t^ 
xoooire-^cct^xO'— i^M-^ioot^ciO'— lce'*»-eI:^xc;cr^!^qce'^tc^^x■ 
LOlO«:>ococo;oocot^^-t^^^t^t~-^'^^xxxxxxxxoc:ociOiOO:! 

^^ ^^ '^^ ^^ ""^7^ ^^ ^r "^^ '^^ "^7^ "^^ ^3^ ^^ ^^ ^^ "^^ "^J^ *^^ ^^ "^^ ^^ ^7^ ^^ ^3^ "^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^'^ ^7^ ^5^ ^M^ 



o re -.r: c: ei i-e X t- c: re o c: ei le X -^ 'T t^ c; re tz c ei -^ c^ ■>! i-e x — -^ 

Le :c ^- X o 7- ei — 1" ■-T X c: ^ ^ re 3^ Le r;;- X en — ei re -*; "^ t^ X c; -- e-i ^ Le 

re re re re re rt re re re re re re re re Je re ?t re K Je ^ Tt'^ ^ -^ 



t^oretccieQLex— <^t^c;re:cc:eQLeX'— I'^t^c^recccifMi-'eX'-'-^t^cs 

ot^xci-^e^reiccDt^c^O'^^'M-fi^coxciCc^i 



re^foccxctiCDe-ire-^ 
ei ?i ?! ?i ?i ?i ?i re re re rt 



^-i 1-- -J — ^ — ' ei ei ei ei ei ei c^i ei r- 

ro re re re re re re re re re re re re re re r' 



re w c: e-i Le X — -^ X — -*■ t^ o re CD c: ei Le X -^ -^ t^ o re -^^ c; !^^ le X >— i "* 1^ 
xc^oc^ire-^wtS-xo — e^'^'-eot^c^o-^re'^Let^xc^oc^ice-^cct^x 
::^ o -^^ — ^ —^ ^^ ^^ -^^ — ^ e-i e-i e-i ei e-i e-i ei e-i re re re re re re re re •^ Tf ■^ ■^ ■^ '^ Tf 
'*<i "^1 "^1 'N c^ c^ c^i '^ c^i ^1 c-i ^ c^ e^ c^ ei 6-1 e-i c^i e^ c^i c^i e^ e^ ei ei c^ 



ore-^c:c^i-ex-^'Tt^c;re:^c:'N>-ex^H'^t^oret^c:e-i;Dctei>-ex 
ie:Dt>xc:— 'ei-^i-eccxctO'— ■re-^i-et^xc:^'(Nre-^;ct^xc; — e-i^^i^.^ 
--vi 'v-j -vj ■^i re re re re re re re re -^ -^ -^ -^ -^ -^ -^ -^ >-e Le Le Le t.e Le Le cc tc: ;c w tc 



Le 







d 




t^oce^Ci'MLex— i'^i:^oceociC<i»-oX'-t-^t^ore:co!Mi-ex^^'*ir^o 
^^rO"*icoxciOC^rei->*'Ot^xO'— ic^roLOcct^CiO'-i'M'^'iooxctcxN • 
^■^^'ei-^Tti^LeOLeo>oiOLei-e;:oooc;cD:c:Dt^t^t--t^r^r^t^t^xoo • 






"o 


1-2 
17-32 

9-l() 
19-32 

5-8 
21-32 

23-32 

3-4 

25-32 

13-16 

27-32 

7-8 

29-32 

15-16 

31-32 

1 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



369 



Decimal equivalents of fractions of an inch can be 
found in Table C. 

TABLE C. Decimal Equivalents of Fractions of an Inch 



8ths 
1/8 = .125 
1/4 = .250 
3/8 = .375 
1/2 = .500 
5/8 = . 625 
3/4 = .750 
7/8 == .875 

16ths 
1/16 =.0625 
3/16= . 1875 
5/16=. 3125 
7/16 =.4375 



9/16=. 5625 
11/16=. 6875 
13/16=. 8125 
15/16=. 9375 

32ds 
1/32=. 03125 
3/32=. 09375 
5/32=. 15625 

7/32=. 21875 

9/32=. 28125 

11/32=. 34375 

13/32=. 40625 

15/32=. 46875 



17/32=. 
19/32=. 
21/32=. 
23/32=. 
25/32=. 
27/32=. 
29/32=. 
31/32=. 



53125 
59375 
65625 

71875 
78125 
84375 
90625 
96875 



64ths 
1/64=. 015625 
3/64=. 046875 
5/64=. 078125 
7/64=. 109375 



9/61=, 
11/64=. 
13/64=. 
15/64=. 
17/64=. 
19/64=. 
21/64=. 
23/64=. 
25/64=. 
27/64=. 
29/64=. 
31/64=. 
33/64=. 
35/64=. 



140625 
171875 
203125 
234375 
265625 
296875 
328125 
359375 
390625 
421875 
453125 
484375 
515625 
546875 



37/6 

39/64= 

41/64=. 

43/64=. 

34/64=. 

47/64=. 

49/64=. 

51/64=. 

53/64=. 

55/64=. 

57/64=. 

59/64=. 

61/64=. 

63/64=. 



.578125 
. 609375 
. 640625 
. 671875 
.703125 
. 734375 
. 765625 
. 796875 
. 828125 
. 859375 
. 890625 
. 921875 
.953125 
984375 



Decimals of a Square Foot. — Measurements taken in 
square inches can be converted into decimals of a square 
foot by dividing the number of square inches by 144, which 
is the number of square inches contained in a square foot. 

Example — Express 20 square inches as a decimal of a square foot. 

20 
Solution— 20 square inches ='^^ = 20 ^ 144 = .138. Answer. 

Square inches expressed as decimals of a square foot 
can be found in Table CI. 

To reduce decimals of a square foot to square inches, 
multiply the decimal by 144. 

Example — Reduce .1388 of a foot to square inches. 
Solution — .1388 X 144 = 20 square inches nearly. Answer. 

Area of a Circle. — To find the area of a circle, square 
the diameter and multiply by .7854. Squaring the diameter 
means multiplying the length of the diameter by itself. 

Example — What is the area of a circle having a diameter of 20 feet? 
Solution— 20 X 20 X .7854 = 314.16 square feet. Answer. 

Diameter of a Circle. — When the area of a circle is 
known, the diameter can be found by dividing the area by 
.7854 and extracting the square root. 



370 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



Example — ^What is the diameter of a circle having an area of 314.16 
square feet? 

Solution— 314.16 -^ .7854 = 400 and W 400 = 20 feet. Answer. 



TABLE CI. Square Inches in Decimals of a Square Foot 



Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Inch 


Foot 


Inch 


Foot 


Inch 


Foot 


Inch 


Foot 


1 


.00694 


15 


. 10416 


29 


.20138 


43 


.29861 


2 


.01388 


16 


.11111 


30 


.20833 


44 


.30555 


3 


.02083 


17 


.11805 


31 


. 21527 


45 


. 31249 


4 


. 02777 


18 


. 12500 


32 


.22222 


46 


. 31944 


5 


.03472 


19 


. 13194 


33 


.22916 


47 


. 32638 


6 


. 04166 


20 


. 13888 


34 


.23611 


48 


.33333 


7 


.04861 


21 


. 14583 


35 


.24305 


49 


.34027 


8 


.05555 


22 


. 15277 


36 


.25000 


50 


. 34722 


9 


. 06250 


23 


. 15972 


37 


.25694 


51 


.35416 


10 


.06944 


24 


. 16666 


38 


.26388 


52 


.36111 


U 


. 07638 


25 


. 17361 


39 


.27083 


53 


.36805 


12 


. 08333 


26 


. 18055 


40 


.27777 


54 


. 37500 


13 


. 09027 


27 


. 18750 


41 


.28472 


55 


. 38194 


14 


. 09722 


28 


.19444 


42 


.29166 


56 


.38888 


57 


. 39583 


79 


. 54861 


101 


.70138 


123 


.85416 


58 


. 40277 


80 


. 55555 


102 


. 70833 


124 


.86111 


59 


.40972 


81 


. 56249 


103 


. 71527 


125 


. 86805 


60 


. 41666 


82 


. 56944 


104 


. 72222 


126 


. 87500 


61 


. 42361 


83 


. 57638 


105 


.72916 


127 


.88194 


62 


. 43055 


84 


. 58333 


106 


.73611 


128 


. 88888 


63 


. 43750 


85 


. 59027 


107 


.74305 


129 


. 89583 


64 


.44444 


86 


. 59722 


108 


. 75000 


130 


.90277 


65 


.45138 


87 


. 60416 


109 


.75691 


131 


.90972 


66 


. 45833 


88 


.61111 


110 


.76388 


132 


.91666 


67 


.46527 


89 


. 61805 


111 


. 77083 


133 


. 92361 


68 


.47222 


90 


. 62500 


112 


.77777 


134 


. 93055 


• 69 


.47916 


91 


. 63194 


113 


. 78472 


135 


. 93750 


70 


.48611 


92 


. 63888 


114 


.79166 


136 


.94444 


71 


. 49305 


93 


. 64583 


115 


.79861 


137 


,95138 


72 


. 50000 


94 


. 65277 


116 


. 80555 


138 


. 95833 


73 


. 50694 


95 


. 65972 


117 


.81249 


139 


. 96527 


74 


.51388 


96 


. 66666 


118 


.81944 


140 


. 97222 


75 


. 52083 


97 


. 67361 


119 


. 82638 


141 


. 97916 


76 


. 52777 


98 


. 68055 


120 


.83333 


142 


.98611 


77 


. 53472 


99 


. 68750 


121 


. 84027 


143 


.99305 


78 


.54166 


100 


. 69444 


122 


. 84722 


144 


1.00000 



Life of Cast Iron Pipes 

The question often arises, how long will cast iron pipe 
last when buried in the earth. This question cannot be 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing S71 

answered definitely in any case, for the life of a cast iron 
pipe will depend upon the chemical composition of the earth 
and water it is in contact with, the chemical constituents 
of the fluid passing through, and whether or not the pipe 
is covered with a protective coating. The following data, 
however, will serve as a guide in forming a judgment. 

The only data from observations at hand are found in 
reports from St. John, N. B., and Los Angeles, Cal. The 
superintendent of the watei> works at the former place re- 
ported in 1892 several observations. In one case a 4-inch 
main, in use about 33 years in marsh mud, had failed by 
softening of the outside, and the break took place at some 
air cells in the body of the pipe. 

A 6-inch pipe 52 years old in soft, slaty rock, failed 
from softening. A 24-inch pipe laid in well drained, 
gravelly brick clay, 36 years old, failed from inherent de- 
fects in the pipe, the outside of the pipe being sound and the 
inside having a coat less than 1/16 inch thick. None of 
these pipes were protected by coatings. The conclusion 
regarding the 24-inch pipe in well drained gravelly clay was 
that, aside from the defects in manufacture, its life would 
have been practically indefinitely long. 

The City Engineer of Los Angeles, Cal., reported the 
condition of the water w^orks in 1897. The pipe was un- 
covered in 318 places. Cast iron pipe 28 years old was 
found in a perfect state of preservation. In sand or loam 
the bare pipe metal did not rust. In hard adobe soil there 
was some rust, but the pipe was practically uninjured. In 
all cases the original asphalt coating had practically disap- 
peared. A later report of a board of engineers, estimated 
the depreciation of the water pipe in the city in the better 
soils at 1.25 per cent, per annum, indicating a life of 80 
years, and in the poorer soils at 2 per cent, per annum, indi- 
cating a life of 50 years. The effect of the soil upon the 
outside of the pipe and of tuberculation upon the inside are 
both allowed for in these estimates. 

In case there is opportunity for electrolysis from street 
railway or other electric leakage, the life of pipe is very 



372 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

greatly shortened. Some chemical conditions of soil which 
will shorten the life of pipe will doubtless also be met with. 

Length of Life of Wrought Iron Gas Pipe 

Like with cast iron pipe buried in the ground, any 
statement about wrought pipe that would be correct in one 
locality might be entirely wrong in another, its life depend- 
ing largely upon the chemical composition of the land 
through which it runs. There are cases where pipes which 
had been in but 10 years, upon examination were found to 
be badly decomposed, while in another locality which pipe 
that had been under ground 25 years when uncovered show- 
ed but little signs of decay. This refers to the outside 
surface only. Cases are rare, however, when pipe would 
be so affected in 10 years as to require replacing. While 
chemical action figures largely in considering this question 
it is not the only thing to take into account when consider- 
ing the life of gas pipe. Electrolysis is liable to be more 
destructive in its attacks than the ordinary chemicals of the 
earth. It will be seen, therefore, that it is quite impossible 
to give any definite data on the subject, but under ordinary 
circumstances cutting out the possibilities of electrolysis 
and especially corrosive soil, 25 years would be about as 
long a life as the average underground gas pipe would last, 
so far as outside deterioration is concerned. When the 
inner surface is considered, however, an entirely different 
problem is presented. There we have the quality of the gas 
to consider. 

For instance, gas pipes which for years gave perfect 
satisfaction, while coal gas was being distributed, became 
entirely useless from the effects of the gas, when adulterated 
gas was forced through the mains, naphthalene and rust 
accumulating to such an extent as to stop the flow of gas 
entirely. As a rule gas pipes suffer more from the inside 
than the outside, particularly in the case of small pipes 
where the impurities and condensation have a better chance 
to work on the entire surface, making small pipes shorter- 
lived than the larger ones. 

And while a good sized pipe might be in fairly good 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 373 

condition at the age of 25, the smaller sized might be filled 
with rust and condensation and be condemned at 15. Under 
favorable conditions, good gas, etc., there is no reason why 
pipe of sufficient sizes should not be good for 25 years at 
least, conducting either gas or water. 

The Sherardizing Process 

The process of sherardizing metals is becoming so ex- 
tensively used in the manufacture of plumbing materials, 
that a better knowledge of the process should be had by all 
engaged in the business. 

In the course of some extensive experiments, writes 
Thomas Liggett in The Foundry, for the purpose of improv- 
ing case-hardening methods, early in the twentieth century, 
Dr. Sherard Copew-Cowles sprinkled some zinc dust on a 
piece of steel and subjected the whole to the ordinary case- 
hardening process and at a temperature less than the melt- 
ing point of zinc — less than 788 degrees Fahrenheit. When 
the material cooled, he found that the steel was coated with 
a thin layer of zinc. After thorough and exhaustive tests 
it was found that this coating gave the underlying metal 
better protection than that obtained by the well known hot 
process, or galvanizing as this is known. 

The essential apparatus necessary in a sherardizing 
plant is an oven large enough to receive the retorts or 
drums which contain the material to be treated. The larg- 
est retorts in use today are 26 inches in diameter and 23 
feet long, designed for merchant pipe. The retorts are 
loaded with the material to be treated and zinc dust or dross, 
placed in the oven and subjected to the heat from any of 
the common fuels, providing that an even temperature may 
be maintained. The retorts are left in the oven for a short 
period at a constant temperature and then removed. When 
they can be handled, they are opened and the material and 
unused dust are dumped on a screen or grating. The dust 
falls through and is ready to be used again. The material 
is finished and found to be covered with a continuous, uni- 
form coating of zinc iron alloy, with a very thin coating of 
metallic zinc on the surface, 



374 Princi'ples and Practice of Plumbing 

No matter how irregular the shape of the material, it 
has a uniform coating and everything is reproduced. 

An inconsiderable amount of superficial material is 
added by the sherardizing process. The zinc dust which is 
used in the process is a secondary product from a zinc 
smelter and is recovered in the flues. The dust is com- 
posed of from 85 to 92 per cent, metallic zinc, about 7 per 
cent, zinc oxide and some other impurities which are not in 
sufficient quantities to work any injury. Zinc dross also 
can be used instead of dust and it has its advantages. It is 
the material which settles to the bottom of a galvanizing 
kettle. After treating it, no difficulty is found in pulveriz- 
ing it for use. While there have been several theories ad- 
vanced as to the action which takes place in the retorts or 
drums during the process, the following facts alone are 
known : 

If metallic zinc content in the dust is kept constant 
there is on the same class of materials equal weights of 
coating, under the same temperature and time of treatment. 

Zinc does not begin to deposit until the material has 
reached the temperature at which magnetic oxide of iron 
appears. 

Iron which oxidizes with difficulty, sherardizes with 
difficulty. 

The continuity of the zinc dust coating, when properly 
applied, is equal to and in the majority of cases superior to 
the hot galvanized coating. While, it is true, under the 
microscope the zinc iron alloy shows cracks or fissures, 
these are of such minute dimensions that nothing can get 
through to the underlying metal. 

The adherence of this alloy is very tenacious. The 
durability of the alloy coating is great, although it is a little 
more brittle than pure zinc and has a slight tendency to 
flake if bent through a sharp angle. The metal which is 
exposed after the flaking is still resistent to corrosion, 
which shows that the underlying metal is not exposed. The 
resistance of the alloy to corrosive agencies is much greater 
than with the zinc coating. In testing sherardized material 
the method m,ost frequeiitly used is the Pr§§ce or copper 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 375 

sulphate method. This consists of immersing a piece of 
galvanized material in a standard copper sulphate solution 
for one minute then washing in clear water and drying with 
cotton waste. This is repeated four times, and if there are 
no bright metallic copper deposits, the material is accepted. 
The standard solution is one whose specific gravity at 65 
degrees Fahrenheit is 1.186. It is prepared by dissolving 
copper sulphate in water, to which an excess of cupric oxide 
has been added. This solution is then filtered and the spe- 
cific gravity made 1.186 at 65 degrees Fahrenheit. The 
trouble of testing sherardized material by this method is 
that if the material is wiped with waste a burnishing action 
takes place. The reasons for this are that the sherardized 
coating being an alloy, the copper is deposited more slowly 
and is more adherent than that which deposits on hot galva- 
nized material; as the sherardized surface is rough it af- 
fords a foothold for this copper and the waste rubbing the 
top burnishes the copper so that instead of cleaning the 
surface as the specifications intend, the deposit is rubbed 
onto the object. With further dipping, the copper deposit 
thickens, and those not thoroughly familiar with this action 
will decide that the coating has failed. To overcome this, 
it is always best to use a stiff bristle brush and scrub lightly 
instead of using waste. 

The Cost of Digging 

The plumber has so much digging and refilling of 
trenches for his pipes, that the following data as to costs 
will be convenient. In laying sewers and water-mains, men 
will excavate and throw on the bank 10 cu. yds. of sand or 
easy earth and from that down to 6 cu. yds. of very hard 
picking earth in a day of eight hours. In back-filling with 
shovels, any good workman should average from 12 to 16 
cu. yds. in eight hours. For shallow work, that is trenches 
not more than five feet deep, the above output should be 
increased about 50 per cent, for excavation but the figures 
for backfilling maintained. If a laborer is paid $1.50 for 
8 hours' work and can put out 8 cu. yds. of earth, the cost 
will be a trifle under 19 cents for digging. The cost of 



S76 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

backfilling will be about 12 cents, thus making the total cost 
per yard only 31 cents. It is seldom that stone which must 
be drilled and blasted, will cost more than S2.00 per cu. yd. 

Ice 

Freezing of water is the cause of much trouble in 
plumbing systems. Burst pipes and vessels, the most com- 
mon damage, is caused by the expansion of water when it 
turns from the fluid to the solid state. WTien it freezes, 
water increases in volume 10 per cent., so that ten volumes 
of water produce 11 volumes of ice. Fresh water, under 
ordinary circumstances, when it reaches the temperature of 
32 degrees Fahrenheit, passes to the solid state, or crystal- 
izes into ice. 

Water in freezing always expands. If it be so confined 
that expansion is impossible, it remains liquid even at tem- 
peratures far below the freezing point ; but the instant the 
pressure is removed, the water freezes into solid ice. As 
there is a constant effort on the part of water exposed to 
freezing temperatures to form ice, and as a very consider- 
able pressure is needed to counterbalance its expansive 
force, the lower the temperature the greater the pressure 
becomes. At a temperature of 30 degrees Fahrenheit the 
pressure amounts to 146 atmospheres, or the weight of a 
column of ice one mile high; or 138 tons per square foot. 
Consequently, when water freezes at a lower temperature, 
the pressure on the walls of its enclosing vessel exceeds 138 
tons per square foot. Bomb-sheUs and cannon filled with 
water and hermetically sealed, have been burst in freezing 
weather by the expansion of the freezing water within 
them. When water is under pressure, for every atmos- 
phere of pressure, that is, for every 14.7 pounds to the 
square inch, the freezing point is lowered by .0075 degree 
Centigrade. 



Multiple Shrlnkage of Floor Beams. — In buildings 
of wooden floor construction there is more to consider than 
the mere shrinkage of one depth of floor joist. There is the 
multiple shrinkage of the several tiers of joists. Buildings 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



377 



over five stories in height seldom have wooden floor beams, 
although up to that height they are the rule rather than 
the exception. If we take as an example, then, the multiple 
shrinkage in a three-story building, it will do to explain the 
case. In Fig. 173 is shown the framework of an ordinary 
building when properly put together. This illustration 
shows a row of brick piers in the centre of the building 
supporting a 10 x 12 girder on which rests the centre bear- 
ing partition to carry the floor beams for the upper floors. 



ThjciD ruQDQ 






-i-l LLL ^^£y^^j^^_ 

•=^^ — - 



^Doub/e, P/afe 



>3e:cond Plod-r 



,_■_,, (^'^^^^-^ 






^J?oc4b/e P/a/e 






^ /o"x/z 
f7ere '/k^/iioh 




/2' Jo^sfs 






Fig. 173 

Framework of an Ordinary Building 
When Properly Put Together 

It will be observed that each tier of beams rests on a plate 
made of two 2x4 and from this plate the studdings are 
erected for the next tier of beams. If the total shrinkage 
for the three floors be now computed it will be seen that the 
10 X 12 girder has shrunk approximately 1/2 inch, and the 
two plates on which the second and third floor beams rest. 



378 



Principles and Practice of Plvmbing 



each being 4 inches deep, shrink approximately 1/6 inch 
each. The total shrinkage for the third floor therefore 
would be 1/2 plus 1/6 plus 1/6, equals 5/6 of an inch. The 
dotted line shows the original position of the joists, and the 
solid lines the position after shrinkage has taken place. It 
might be well to add that carpenters are aware of this 
shrinkage of timbers and in building make the floors higher 
in the centre than at the walls to allow for the shrinkage 
so the floors will be about level when the building has dried 
out. 



Th(RD FLcaoR 



~T~^^ /^Z.'&S-i^. 



/J 



/6" Will shrink 
about ^a 'fJch 



•Doub/e p/afe 



/a"h/,// shrmk 



v5ccosjD Floor 

■3incf/e '^/// 



/Z" Joist 



-Doubfe p/if/e 



First Fl-oofj 

^Single sitf 




£6 h^/Z/shr/n/r 
ahauZ / /hcb 

Fig. 174 
Framework of a Commonly Constructed Building 

But buildings are not always erected as they should be. 
In the illustration, Fig. 174, is shown how they commonly 
are constructed. This method of framing saves a foot in 
length of every studding at each floor, and for this reason is 
more often followed than the better method. 

The difference to the plumber and fitter, however, will 
be readily seen. Instead of all floors resting on a partition 
supported by a girder so there would be no shrinkage to 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 



S79 



take care of but that of the girder and two double plates 
(wood does not shrink lengthwise perceptibly) in the pres- 
ent method the bearing partitions for each floor rests on a 
single plate supported by the floor joists below; the result 
is, the upper floors are affected by the shrinkage of the floor 
joists on every floor below them. In the present instance, 
the joist, sill and girder of the first floor are 26 inches deep 
and will shrink all told over 1 inch. The double plate, joist 
and sill of the second floor being about 18 inches deep will 
shrink approximately % inch; while the double plates and 
joists of the third floors, being 16 inches deep, will shrink 
about % inch. 

The total lowering of the floor line of the third floor 
then will be 1 plus % plus %, equals 2% inches, as against 
less than one inch in the former method of construction. It 
will be seen, therefore, that the plumbers and fitters in lay- 
ing out their work must take into consideration not only the 
shrinkage of beams and timbers and their combined shrink- 
ages, but likewise the method of construction and make due 
allowances in the connection to radiators, and provide flex- 
ible and collapsible connections for water closets. 

Water Pipe Sizes in Various American Cities 

Sir : The writer has recently compiled statistics of the 
amount of the several sizes of water pipe in use in the fol- 
lowing cities : 



Cambridge, Mass. 
Brockton, Mass. 
Richmond, Va. 
Holyoke, Mass. 
Providence, R. I. 
New Haven, Conn. 
Reading, Pa. 
Worcester, Mass. 



Lowell, Mass. 
Attleboro, Mass. 
Troy, N. Y. 
Concord, N. H. 
Corning, N. Y. 
Wilmington, Del. 
Binghamton, N. Y. 
Rochester, N. Y. 
New Bedford, Mass. 



Fall River, Mass. 
Hartford, Conn. 
Washington, D. C. 
Brookline, Mass. 
Boston, Mass. 
Springfield, Mass. 
Albany, N. Y. 
Waterbury, Conn. 



As these 25 cities may perhaps be considered as repre- 
senting the average of a greater number, the following 
result is given, as being of possible interest to your readers : 



380 Principles and Practice of Plumhing 



Size. 


Percentage. 


Size. 


Percentage. 


3 in. 


.77 


18 in. 


.03 


4 in. 


8.93 


20 in. 


2.81 


6 in. 


44.98 


24 in. 


2.54 


8 in. 


14.44 


30 in. 


1.99 


10 in. 


4.00 


36 in. 


1.17 


12 in. 


12.64 


40 in. 


.30 


14 in. 


.42 


42 in. 


.20 


16 in. 


4.38 


48 in. 


.40 



W. B. Franklin, 



Press of Lyon & Armor 
Philadelphia. Pa. 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 381 

INDEX 



A ' Page. 

Absorption and Radiation of Heat 245 

Acid and Alkali, Fibre Conduit for 16 

Acid and Alkali Wastes, Piping for 12 

Acids, Resistance of Metals and Alloys to 15 

Action of Wind on Windmills 319 

Air Chambers 199 

Air Chambers 162 

Air Leakage, Effect of on a Siphon 48 

Air Locks in Plumbing 165 

Alkali and Acid, Fibre Conduit for 16 

Alkalia and Acid Wastes, Piping for 12 

Alloys and Metals, Resistance of to Acids 15 

Apparatus, Deactivating 240 

Apparatus, De-Aerating i 241 

Apparatus, Deoxidizing 240 

Apparatus, Water Heating 245 

Appliances, Safety 298 

Area and Yard Drains 45 

Area of a Circle 369 

Automatic Water Heaters 277 

B 

Back-Pressure on Traps ; 91 

Back- Venting Traps 95 

Boiler Connections 294 

Blow-Off Tanks 99 

Boilers, Copper 288 

Boilers, Range 289 

Boiling Point of Water 248 

Booster Heaters 275 

Brass Pipe 175 

Buildings, Settlement and Shrinkage of 80 

c 

Capacity of Drains Running Full 32 

Capacity of Pipes, Discharging 146 

Capacity of Pumps 202 

Capacity of Sewer Pipes 37 

Capacity of Waterbacks and Coils 255 

Capacity of Water Heaters 257 

Cast-Iron Pipe, Life of 370 

Circle, Area of a , , , . r . , , 369 



382 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

Page. 

Circle, Diameter of a 369 

Circulation of Water ^ 252 

Circulation Pipes 305 

Classification of Water /. 116 

Cleanout Ferrules 22 

Closet Floor Flanges 346 

Closets, Reverse-Trap 345 

Closets, Siphon-Action 344 

Closets, Siphon- Jet 345 

Coagulant 220 

Cocks and Valves , 178 

Coils and Waterbacks, Capacity of 255 

Coils, Cooling 314 

Coils, Steam 262 

Commingler 268 

Connection, Service 187 

Connections to House Drain 21 

Connection to Street Sewer 19 

Consumption of Water, Per Capita 35 

Continuous Vent or Loop System 60 

Contracted Vein, The 134 

Contraction and Expansion of Leaders -. 44 

Cooling Coils 314 

Cooling Tanks 312 

Copper Boilers 288 

Corrosion of Lead Pipe 169 

Cost of Digging 375 

Covering for Tanks 310 

Coverings, Pipe 308 

D 

Deactivating Apparatus 240 

De-Aerating Apparatus 241 

Decimal Equivalents of an Inch 366 

Decimal Equivalents of Fractions of an Inch 369 

Decimal Fractions of a Foot 366 

Decimals of a Square Foot 369 

Deoxidizing Apparatus 240 

Diameter of a Circle 369 

Digging, Cost of 375 

Discharging Capacity of Pipes 146 

Distance Fixtures Can Be from Stack 64 

Distance of Back-Vent from Trap 94 

Draft Regulators 304 

Drainage, Sub-Soil — 109 

Drainage System^ Example of a. ................. r ? r ••?••?••••?••?••• • I 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 383 

Page. 

Drainage System, Proportioning the 28 

Drains Running Full, Capacity of 32 

Drains, Velocity of Flow in 28 

Drive-Pipe for Rams 334 

Duriron 13 

E 

Effect of Water Upon Metals 120 

Efficiency of Filters 224 

Equation of Pipes 189 

Equivalents of an Inch, Decimal 366 

Evaporation from Traps 91 

Example of a Drainage System 1 

Expansion and Contraction of Leaders 44 

Expansion of Pipe 307 

Expansion of Soil and Waste Stacks 79 

Expansion of Water 248 

F 

Fibre Conduit for Acid and Alkali 16 

Filters, Efficiency of 224 

Filtration 219 

Filtration Controllers 222 

Fire Hose 217 

Fire Lines 212 

Fire Streams, Range of 213 

Fires, Temperature of 248 

Fixtures, Distance Can Be from Stack 64 

Fixtures for Schools, Number of Toilet 344 

Fixtures, Plumbing 340 

Fixtures Required, Number of 342 

Flanges, Closet Floor 346 

Flashings, Roof 83 

Floor Beams, Shrinkage of 376 

Floor Drains 26 

Floor Flanges, Closet 346 

Flow in Drains, Velocity of 28 

Flow of Water at Plumbing Fixtures 194 

Flow of Water Through Pipes 134 

Flow, Velocity of 141 

Flush Tanks 348 

Flush Valves 349 

Force Pumps 198 

Fractions of a Foot, Decimal 366 

Friction in Pipes 134 



384 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

Page. 

Fresh-Air Inlet , 39 

Full-Weight and Merchant Pipe 175 

G 

Garbage Burning Water Heaters 260 

Gas, Heat Units in 276 

Gas, Kinds of 275 

Gasoline and Oil Separators 46 

Grease Traps 91 

H 

Hardness of Water 118 

Head, Loss of 142 

Heat, Absorption and Radiation of 245 

Heat, Measurement of 246 

Heat, Properties of 245 

Heat, Transfer of 245 

Heat, Transmission of . . 247 

Heat Units in Gas 276 

Heaters, Automatic Water 277 

Heaters. Booster 275 

Heaters. Multi-Coil Storage 279 

Heaters, Water 256 

Heating Apparatus. Water 245 

Heating Water by Steam in Contact 265 

Heating Water for Swimming Pools 361 

Heating Water with Gas 275 

High-Silica Cast-iron Pipe 13 

Horsepower of Pumps 201 

Hose. Fire 217 

Hose Reels 218 

Hospital Lavatory 354 

Hospital Slop Sinks 354 

Hot Water. Properties of 248 

Hot Water Supply 245 

Hot Water. Tanks for Storing 288 

House Drain 20 

House Drains. Size of 29 

House Drains. Supports for 24 

House Sewers. Iron Pipe 16 

House Sewer, The 7 

Hydraulic Gradient, The 129 

Hydraulic Pressure. Laws of 129 

Hydraulic Rams 331 

Hydrodynamics 129 

Hydrostatics 129 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 385 

I Page. 

Ice 376 

Ice-Water Supply 312 

Incrustation of Water Heaters '. 261 

Iron Pipe House Sewers 16 

J 

Joints, Lead Calked 18 

Joints, Rust 18 

Joints, Tile Pipe 11 

L 

Lavatories, Roughing-In for 68 

Law of Pressure, Pascal's 131 

Laws of Hydraulic Pressure 129 

Laying Tile Sewer, Methods of 8 

Leaders, Expansion and Contraction of 44 

Lead-Calked Joints 18 

Lead Pipe, Corrosion of 169 

Lead Pipe, Strength of 169 

Leaders, Size of 43 

Leveling Tile Pipe 9 

Life of Cast-Iron Pipe 370 

Life of Wrought-Iron Pipe 372 

Lift of a Pump ; 196 

Lift of Pumps, Suction , 198 

Loop or Continuous Vent System , 60 

Loss of Head 142 

Loss of Head in Meters 150 

Loss of Seal 88 

Laundry Fixtures and Connections 343 

M 

Main-Drain Trap ; 25 

Materials for House Drain 20 

Materials for Stacks 85 

Measurement of Heat 246 

Measurement of Temperature 247 

Measurement of Water 147 

Mechanical Discharge Systems 104 

Merchant and Full-Weight Pipe 175 

Metals and Alloys, Resistance of to Acids. . 15 

Meters, Loss of Head in 150 

Meters, Velocity 147 

Meters, Volume 148 

Meter Rates, Water 150 



386 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

Pace. 

Meter, Ventttri 147 

Mixing Waters of Different Temperatures 253 

.Mud Drum 289 

Multi-Coil Storage Heaters 278 

N 

Noiseless Water Heaters 265 

;2^on-Siphon Traps 90 

Number of Fixtures Required 342 

JNumber of Toilet Fixtures for Schools 344 

o 

■^Oil Separators , 46 

*One Pipe System of Plumbing 58 

43verheated Water , 302 

P 

'Pascal's Law of Pressure 131 

J'erformance of House Pumps 202 

Permutit Process, The 230 

Pipe, Brass 175 

Pipe Coverings 308 

Pipe, Expansion of , 307 

JPipe, Leveling Tile 9 

Pipe, Life of Cast-Iron , 370 

JPipe, Life of Wrought-Iron 372 

Pipe, Merchant and Full-Weight 175 

Pipe Joints, Tile , 11 

Pipes, Circulation 305 

Pipes, Discharging Capacity of 146 

Pipes, Equation of ' 189 

Pipes, Friction in 134 

Pipes, Sizes of Water 192 

Pipes, Water Supply 168 

Pipes, Wrought Iron and Steel 172 

Piping for Alkali and Acid Wastes 12 

Plumbing Fixtures 340 

Plumbing Fixtures, Flow of Water at 194 

Plumbing, One Pipe System of 58 

Plumbing System, Requirements of a " 

Plumbing, Two-Pipe System of ^6 

Pneumatic Water Supply ' 338 

Pools, Swimming 3t)8 

Pressure, Pascal's Law of 131 

Pressure, Laws of Hydraulic 12" 



Principles and Practice of Plumbing 38T 

Page. 

Pressure Regulators 183 

Properties of Heat 245 

Properties of Hot Water 248 

Properties of Saturated Steam 271 

Properties of Water 113 

Proportioning the Drainage System 28 

Pump, Lift of a 196 

Pumps and Pumping 196 

Pumps, Capacity of 202 

Pumps, Force 198 

Pumps, Horsepower of 201 

Pumps, Performance of House 202 

Pumps, Slip of 198 

Pumps, Suction Lift of 198 

Pumps, Suction or Lift ^ 196 

Pumps, Steam 200 

R 

Radiation and Absorption of Heat , 245' 

Rain and Shower Baths 355 

Rain Leaders 41 

Rainfall, Intensity of 30 

Rams, Drive-Pipe for 334 

Rams, Hydraulic 331 

Range Boilers 289 

Range of Fire Streams 213 

Refrigerator Wastes 101 

Regulators, Draft 304 

Regulators, Pressure 183 

Regulators, Steam Coil 304 

Reverse-Trap Closets 345 

Roof Connections 41 

Roof Flashings 83 

Roughing-In for Bathrooms on Two Floors 66 

Roughing-In for Lavatories 68 

Roughing-In for Single Bathrooms 63 

Roughing-In Tall Buildings 69 

Rust Joints , 18 

Rust Prevention 238 

s 

Safety Appliances 298 

Saturated Steam, Properties of 271 

School Sinks and Latrine Troughs 350 

Schools, Number of Toilet Fixtures for 344 



388 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

Page. 

Seal, Loss of , 83 

Service Connection 187 

Sewer, Connection to Street 19 

Sewer Pipes, Capacity of 37 

Sewer. Methods of Laying Tile 8 

Sewer Pipe, Dimensions of 8 

Sewers, Iron Pipe House 16 

Settlement and Shrinkage of Buildings 80 

Soap Required to Soften Water 227 

Softening of Water 226 

SoiL Waste and \ ent Systems 56 

Solvent Power of Water 119 

Sherardizing Process, The 373 

Shower and Rain Baths 355 

Shrinkage and Settlement of Buildings 8<) 

Shrinkage of Floor Beams 376 

Siamese Twin Connections 217 

Siphonage, Application of to Fixture Trap 50 

Siphon-Action Closets 3-54 

Siphon- Jet Closets 345 

Siphon Traps 37 

Siphons and Siphonage 47 

Siphons. Application of to Closets 53 

Siphons for Equalizing Water Levels 49 

Size of Fresh-Air Lilet 4^3 

Size of House Drains 29 

Size of Leaders 43 

Size of Standpipes 212 

Size of Water Pipes 192 

Size of Soil and Vent Stacks 72 

Slip of Pumps 198 

Slop Sinks 353 

Smoke Flues -57 

Soil and Vent Stacks, Size of .... - 

Soil and Waste Stacks, Expansion of 9 

Square Foot, Decimals of a 369 

Stacks Ahove Roof, Outlets to 33 

Stacks and Branches -5^ 

Stacks, Materials for So 

Stacks, Supports for 3^^ 

Standpipes, Size of .... 212 

Steam CoU Regulators 304 

Steam Coils ■ • •• ^^2 

Steam, Properties of Saturated 271 

Steam Pumps 200 

Steam Required to Heat Water 270 



Pviyiciples and Practice of Plumbing 389 

Page. 

Steel and Wrought Iron Pipes 172 

Sterilizing Swimming Pool Water 362 

Sterilizing with Ultra Violet Rays 234 

Street Sewer, Connection to 19 

Strength of Lead Pipe 169 

Sub-Sewer Systems 104 

Sub-Soil Drainage , 109 

Suburban Places, Water Supply for 318 

Suction Lift of Pumps 198 

Suction or Lift Pumps 196 

Supply, Ice-Water , 312 

Supply, Hot Water 245 

Supply Pipes, Water 168 

Supports for House Drains 24 

Supports for Stacks 85 

Swimming Pools 358 

Swimming Pools, Heating Water for 361 

Swimming Pool Water, Sterilizing 362 

System of Plumbing, One-Pipe , . . . 58 

System of Plumbing, Two-Pipe 56 

T 

Tall Buildings, Roughing-In 69 

Tanks, Blow-Off 99 

Tanks, Cooling 312 

Tanks, Covering for 310 

Tanks, Flush 348 

Tanks for Storing Hot Water 288 

Temperature, Measurement of 247 

Temperature of Fires 248 

Tide-Water Trap 25 

Tile Pipe Joints 11 

Tile Pipe, Leveling 9 

Tile Sewer Pipe, Where It May Be Used , 12 

Transfer of Heat 245 

Transmission of Heat 247 

Traps and Trapping 87 

Traps, Back-Pressure on 91 

Traps, Back-Venting 95 

Traps, Grease 91 

Traps, Distance of Back-Vent from 94 

Traps, Evaporation from 91 

Traps, Main Drain 25 

Traps, Non-Siphon 90 

Traps, Siphon 87 



390 Principles and Practice of Plumbing 

Page, 

Traps. Tide-Water 25 

Trapping of Leaders 41 

Two-Pipe System of Plumbing 56 

u 

T rinals 352 

L lira ^Tolet Rays, Sterilizing with 234 

V 

Valves and Cooks 178 

ValYes, Flush 349 

Velocity of Fkav 141 

^ elocity of Flow in Drains 28 

Velocity Meters 147 

Velocity of Wind 319 

Vent and Soil Stacks. Size of , 72 

\ ent System, Loop or Continuous \ ent 60 

A entilation of Closet Compartments 351 

Venturi Meter 147 

Volume Meters 148 

w 

Waste of ^ ater 152 

Wastes, Refrigerator 101 

Waterbacks 254 

Waterbacks and Coils, Capacity of 255 

Water at Plumbing Fi5:tures, Flow of 194 

Water, Boiling Point of 248 

Water, Circulation of 252 

^ ater, Classification of 116 

Water Closets 341 

^ ater Cooler for Outdoor Fountain 315 

Water-Cooling Pvefrigerating Machines 315 

Water, Effect of Upon Metals 120 

Water, Expansion of 248 

Water, Flow of Through Pipes 134 

Water Hammer 156 

Water, Hardness of 118 

Water Heaters 256 

Water Heaters, Capacity of 25 . 

Water Heaters, Garbage Burning 260 

Water Heaters, Automatic 2< * 

Water Heating Apparatus 245 

Water Heating Data 282 

Water, Heating with Gas 2 . o 



Principles and Practice of Plumhing 391 

Pace. 

\^ater Heaters, Incrustation of 261 

Water Heaters, Noiseless 265 

Water, Measurement of , 147 

Water Meter Rates 150 

Water, Overheated 302 

Water, Per Capita Consumption of 35 

Water Pipe Sizes in American Cities 379 

W ater Pipes, Sizes of 192 

Water, Properties of 113 

Water Required for Various Purposes 193 

Water, Soap Required to Soften 227 

Water Softening Apparatus 228 

Water, Softening of 226 

Water, Solvent Power of 119 

Water, Steam Required to Heat 270 

Water Supply for Suburban Places , 318 

Water Supply, Hot , 245 

Water Supply Pipes 168 

Water Supply, Pneumatic 388 

Water, Waste of 152 

Water, Tanks for Storing Hot 288 

Waters of Different Temperatures, Mixing 253 

Windmills 318 

Windmills, Action of Wind on 319 

Wind, Velocity of 319 

Wrought Iron and Steel Pipes 172 

Wrought-Iron Pipe, Life of 372 



